The Project Gutenberg eBook of Nicaraguan Antiquities, by Carl Bovallius

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
using this eBook.

Title: Nicaraguan Antiquities

Author: Carl Bovallius

Release Date: March 05, 2021 [eBook #64707]

Language: English

Character set encoding: UTF-8

Produced by: The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
             https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
             generously made available by The Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NICARAGUAN ANTIQUITIES ***




Transcriber’s Notes:

  Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_
    in the original text.
  Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals.
  Typographical errors have been silently corrected.




    SWEDISH SOCIETY OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY

               NICARAGUAN ANTIQUITIES

                         BY
                   CARL BOVALLIUS

                   STOCKHOLM, 1886
                KONGL. BOKTRYCKERIET
               P. A. NORSTEDT & SÖNER

                         TO
            THE ROYAL ANTIQUARY OF SWEDEN

                 DR. HANS HILDEBRAND

                     THIS WORK,
     THE PUBLICATION OF WHICH HAS BEEN POSSIBLE
             ONLY BY HIS KIND EXERTIONS,
               IS GRATEFULLY DEDICATED
                   BY THE AUTHOR.


Nicaragua is a very rich field for research to the student of American
Archæology, and so I found it during my two years stay in Central
America. I had there the good fortune several times to meet with
localities more or less rich in remains from the prehistoric or
rather pre-spanish period. Not very much being known about Central
American antiquities, and the literature on this subject being very
poor, especially with regard to the Nicaraguan ones, I purpose
here to describe briefly and to figure the more important statues,
rock-carvings, ceramic objects etc., found by me in Nicaragua and
partly delineated or photographed on the spot, partly brought home
to Sweden. Unfortunately I wanted the means of carrying home any of
the statues; but my Nicaraguan collections contain a number of more
easily transportable relics, mostly examples of pottery. These are
now deposited in the ethnographic collection of the R. Swedish State
Museum. The accompanying plates are all executed after my original
sketches or photographs taken on the spot. Most of the statues have
never before been figured or described; some of them are mentioned and
figured by E. G. SQUIER[1] in his splendid work on Nicaragua. As it
turned out, however, on comparisons being made by me on the spot, that
some of Squier’s figures do not quite agree with the originals, I have
thought fit to publish also my own drawings of these previously figured
statues, 6 in number.

[1] Nicaragua: its people, scenery, monuments, and the proposed
interoceanic canal. With numerous original maps and illustrations. In
two volumes. London, 1852.

Although this sketch is certainly not the place for an account of the
history of Central America or Nicaragua, yet I may be permitted to give
a brief statement of those few and disconnected notices that we possess
with regard to the nations inhabiting Nicaragua at that period, when
the antiquities here spoken of were probably executed. The sources of
our knowledge of these people and their culture are, besides the above
quoted work of SQUIER, the old Spanish chroniclers, OVIEDO, TORQUEMADA,
HERRERA, and GUARROS, the memoirs of LAS CASAS and PETER MARTYR, the
relation of THOMAS GAGE, and scattered notices in the works of GOMARA,
IXTLILXOCHITL, DAMPIER a. o.

       *       *       *       *       *

At the time of the Spanish invasion under the command of _Don Gil
Gonzales de Avila_ in the years 1521 and 1522, the region now occupied
by the republic of Nicaragua and the north-eastern part of the republic
of Costa Rica, was inhabited by Indian nations of four different
stocks, which very probably may be considered as being of different
origin and having immigrated into the country at widely separated
periods.

The Atlantic coast with its luxuriant vegetation but damp climate and
the adjacent mountainous country with its vast primeval forests were
the home of more or less _nomadic tribes_, remaining at a low stage of
civilization. It may be inferred, however, from certain indications
in the account of the third voyage of Columbus, and from the scanty
notices of several of the so-called buccaneers or filibusters, that
those Indians were more advanced in culture and manner of life than the
hordes, that may be regarded as their descendants at the present day:
the _Moscos_, the _Ramas_, the _Simoos_ or _Smoos_ a. o.[2]

Between this strip of country on the eastern shore and the two great
lakes, _Xolotlan_ (Managua) and _Cocibolca_ (the lake of Nicaragua),
the intermediate highland, which shelves gradually towards the lakes,
was inhabited by los _Chontales_, as they are denominated by OVIEDO.
The name is still preserved in «Departemento de _Chontales_». They
lived in large villages and towns and were agriculturists. Possibly
they were of the same stock as, or closely related to, the large
_Maya_-family which extended over the eastern parts of Honduras and
Guatemala and furnished the population of Yucatan. This guess acquires
a certain probability by the fact of several words in their language
being similar to the corresponding ones in some Maya-dialects. The
_Poas_, _Toacas_, _Lacandones_, and _Guatusos_ may possibly be their
descendants. These also are living at a decidedly lower stage of
civilization than their supposed ancestors.

[2] I cannot but contradict, on the ground of my own investigations,
the suggestion of Squier, that the nomadic tribes on the east coast of
Nicaragua were related to the Caribs, and especially «the Melchoras on
the river San Juan are certainly of Carib stock». All the individuals
of the Simoo, Rama and Melchora tribe, that I have seen and measured,
correspond far more, both in general habitus and cranial characters, to
the Talamanca Indians and Guatusos, indeed even to the Indios mansos in
Chontales and in Northern Nicaragua, than to the Caribs of Honduras who
are proved to be true Caribs, or to the Magdalena Indians in Columbia
who are supposed to belong to the Carib stock. The differences are so
great as to make it probable that Squier’s supposition arises from a
confusion of names, more particularly because the name of Caribs was
applied to all Indios bravos of eastern Nicaragua during the Spanish
time, long before the brave Caribs of S:t Vincent, the last remains
of that people in the West-Indies, after a long and hard struggle
for freedom were expatriated and carried to Ruatan, from where they
transmigrated afterwards of their own will to the opposite coast of
Honduras.

If the eastern part of Nicaragua, on account of its almost impenetrable
forests and damp climate, is less fit to be the dwelling-place of a
highly cultivated people, the western portion, on the contrary, is
much more happily endowed in this respect and seems to be marked
out by nature itself to become one of the centres of mankind’s
civilization. By its smiling valleys, fertile plains, and thinner, but
shadowy forests, by its splendid lakes, gently flowing rivers, and
verdant mountains the country appears well able to tempt even the most
exacting people to settle in it. Indeed the country, on the arrival
of the Spaniards, was found to be very densely populated, and divided
amongst a great number of small sovereignities, which could however be
referred to two separate stocks, differing in language and character.
One of these, the third one of those stocks from which has sprung the
population of Nicaragua, was los _Choroteganos_ or _Mangues_. They
occupied the territory between the two large lakes and all the fertile
level country west and north of Lake Managua down to the Pacific and
Bahia de Fonseca. OVIEDO asserts that they were the aborigines and
ancient masters of the country, without being able however to state any
proofs in support of his opinion. Of los _Choroteganos_ four groups
are usually distinguished: 1:0) Los _Cholutecas_ on the shores of
Bahia de Fonseca; their principal town was the present _Choluteca_.
2:0) Los _Nagrandanos_ between Lake Managua and the Pacific; their
capital was _Subtiaba_, near the present Leon. 3:0) Los _Dirianos_
between the lakes Managua and Nicaragua and down to the coast of the
Pacific. Their largest town was _Salteba_ near the present Granada and
4:0) Los _Orotinas_ far separated from their relations, inhabiting the
peninsula of Nicoya and the territory of Guanacaste, which comprises
the north-eastern part of the republic of Costa Rica. Opinions vary,
however, with regard to these groups, several authors being inclined
to regard los _Cholutecas_ as a detached branch of los Pipiles in El
Salvador; they would then be of Toltecan origin. Certainly there is a
number of local names within their district which seem to corroborate
this opinion. Other writers are disposed to ascribe a Mexican origin
to the Orotinas and lastly Dr. BERENDT[3] suggests that the whole
Chorotegan stock may be considered as a Toltecan offspring, the name
Choroteganos being only a corruption of Cholutecas.

[3] «Geographical Distribution of the Ancient Central American
Civilisation», in Journal of the American Geographical Society of New
York, vol. 8, 1870, p. 142.

The last or fourth of the tribes inhabiting Nicaragua was los
_Niquiranos_. The territory occupied by this people was the smallest of
all, viz.; the narrow isthmus between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific,
together with the large islands, Ometepec and Zapatera, in Lake
Nicaragua. But although comparatively small in extent this territory
was perhaps the most richly blessed of all in this country, the darling
one of nature. According to the concurrent testimonies of the old
chroniclers the Niquirans were a Mexican people settled in the country
at a comparatively late period. It is not clear whether they were
Toltecs or Aztecs, and this question cannot probably be decided until
the ancient remains, surely very numerous, that they have left behind
them, shall have been accurately studied and compared with the better
known Mexican antiquities. For my own part I incline to the opinion
that they were Aztecs, and had immigrated into the country rather late,
perhaps little more than a hundred years before the Spanish invasion.
They lived in a state of permanent hostility with the Chorotegans and
had probably, on their irruption, expelled the Orotinas, who were
thus cut off from the main stock of the Chorotegans. The intelligent
and well built Indians on the island of Ometepec are doubtless the
descendants of the Niquirans; this is corroborated by their language,
which the successful investigations of SQUIER have shown to be of
Mexican origin and presenting a very close similarity to the pure Aztec
tongue. They are now a laborious and peaceful race, somewhat shy of
strangers; in general they speak Spanish, but may be heard occasionally
to talk Indian dialect with one another; with regard to this dialect
they are, however, extremely unwilling to afford any explanations,
generally answering «es muy antiguo» «no sé nada». The Indians of Belen
and the surrounding region remind one of the Ometepec Indians, but are
evidently intermixed with foreign elements.

According to OVIEDO, TORQUEMADA, and CEREZEDA, the last one of whom
accompanied GIL GONZALES DE AVILA in his expedition 1522, and thus
is able to speak, like OVIEDO, from his own personal observations,
the Niquirans had reached a higher degree of civilization than their
neighbours. However, the Chorotegans were also pretty far advanced in
culture.

Indeed, reading the scanty descriptions of the last days of these
nations, one feels tempted to assert that in harmonic development
of the mental faculties they were superior to that nation, which,
by its crowds of rapacious and sanguinary adventurers, honoured in
history with the name of «los Conquistadores», has fixed upon itself
the heavy responsibility for the annihilation of this civilization.
For indeed so swift and radical was this annihilation, through the
fanatical vandalism of «christian» priests and the bloody crimes of a
greedy soldatesca, that history knows of no similar example. Thus the
investigator of the comparatively modern culture of Central America is
obliged to travel by more toilsome and doubtful roads than the student
of the ancient forms of civilization of Egypt and India, although these
were dead several thousands of years ago.

So much, however, has come to the knowledge of our time, as suffices to
prove that the nations of Central America were very far advanced in
political and social development as well as in science and art. But no
other way is left to us of gaining an insight in this culture, than
to search the country perseveringly for the purpose of disclosing the
monuments, hidden in the ground or enviously concealed by the primeval
vegetation, that now reigns alone in many of those places, which were
formerly occupied by populous and flourishing cities, and artistically
ornamented temples.

By comparing these monuments with those of Mexican culture, somewhat
better known in certain respects, we may hope finally to arrive at
the solution of some of the intricate problems concerning the ancient
nations of Central America and their history.

       *       *       *       *       *

The antiquities figured by me were found for the greatest part
in the island of _Zapatera_, the rock-carvings in the islet of
_Ceiba_ close to Zapatera, only some few ceramic objects are from
the island of _Ometepec_. All these localities are contained within
the territory occupied by the Niquirans, and on this account may
probably be considered as specimens of _Aztec_ art, or of an art
very closely related to this. Those few statues that I have seen in
the neighbourhood of _Granada_ and in _Las Isletas_ immediately off
Granada, as well as the statues and high-reliefs in the little volcanic
island of _Momotombito_ in Lake Managua, the former belonging probably
to los _Dirianos_, the latter to los _Nagrandanos_, appear to me to be
much more rudely executed, without any attempt to copy the human body;
whereas many of the statues of _Zapatera_ testify to a pretty accurate
study of the human body, often presenting faithfully elaborated muscle
portions etc., so as to make it probable that the Niquiran artists used
models. There certainly are found rather fantastic figures even among
these statues, but in general their originators prove to be artists of
a more realistic conception, and at the same time of more developed
technics than the Chorotegan artists. From the monuments etc. found
farther northwards at _Copan_, _Quiriguá_, _Uxmal_, _Palenque_, and
other places in Central America, the works here described differ most
considerably, indeed so much that it is not easy to point out more than
a few common artistic features.

With the exception of the meagre notices, communicated by OVIEDO
and CEREZEDA and their compilers, the source of our knowledge of
_Nicaraguan_ antiquities is E. G. SQUIER’S interesting work «Nicaragua:
its people, scenery, monuments and the proposed interoceanic canal».
After SQUIER some other American investigators have followed in the
road opened by him; Dr. EARL FLINT of Rivas has during many years
searched for and collected antiquities, partly in the Department of
Rivas, partly in the island of Ometepec. I am obliged to Dr. FLINT for
much valuable information on the present subject, kindly communicated
to me, when I had the pleasure of meeting with him at Rivas in
January 1883. He has sent the collections gradually brought together
by himself, to the _Smithsonian Institution_. In «_Archæological
researches in Nicaragua_»[4] Dr. J. F. BRANSFORD gives a highly
interesting description of his researches in Ometepec, where he made
a large collection of grave-urns, other vessels of pottery, and
smaller relics of stone and metal. He occupied himself principally in
investigating burying-places on the west side of the island and he
has thrown a new light on this part of Niquiran archæology. His very
large collection, of 788 numeros, is deposited in the collections of
the Smithsonian Institution in Washington. He has also figured several
rock-carvings from Ometepec; these seem to be a little ruder and less
complicated than those delineated by me from the island of Ceiba.
Dr. BRANSFORD also describes several ancient relics from _Talmac_,
_San Juan del Sur_ in the department of Rivas, and some localities in
Nicoya, in the republic of Costa Rica. From a linguistic point of view
Dr. BERENDT[5] has given very valuable contributions to our knowledge
of the ancient civilisation of Nicaragua by his sharp-sighted and
successful investigations into the Indian idioms of that country and
into those of Mexico and of the northern parts of Central America.

[4] Smithsonian Contributions to knowledge (383), vol. 25. Washington
1885 (1881).

[5] See above.

       *       *       *       *       *

In the night of the New-Year’s-eve 1882-1883 I arrived at _Ometepec_
from Granada, and took up my head-quarters at the little borough of
_Muyogalpa_, in the north-west corner of the island. From this point
excursions were made in different directions, and, although my time was
pretty severely taxed by zoological researches, I found however some
opportunities of undertaking archæological diggings.

Hardly one kilometer to the west of the burying-place examined by Dr.
BRANSFORD, a symmetrical mound, rising one meter and a half above the
ground, was dug through (Station 1). It contained a little bowl, pieces
of a larger urn of an unusual thickness, feet and fragments of a tripod
vase, and a little bronze figure of a saint, the last one evidently
a foreign guest among the other objects. At _Los Angeles_ (Stat. 2)
two statues, both very badly frayed, were measured and sketched; some
insignificant fragments of pottery were digged out. At a bay (Stat. 3)
on the north side, between _Muyogalpa_ and _Alta Gracia_, in a place
said by the Indians to have formerly been a town, fragments of divers
small pottery, two stone chisels, one «molidor», and perforated and
polished shells of a species of Oliva and a species of Voluta, from the
neighboring coast of the Pacific, were dug out. In a valley, or rather
ravine (Stat. 4), near _Alta Gracia_, where a heap of pretty large,
partly cut stones seemed to indicate the site of a large building,
several fragments of pottery were found together with a cup of earthen
ware, and a well preserved little sitting image of painted terra cotta,
pretty similar to that figured by BRANSFORD, l. c., p. 59. At a height
of nearly 350 m. above the level of the lake on the west side of the
majestically beautiful volcanic cone (Stat. 5), while digging in a
rather extensive stone-mound, a very pretty, vaulted earthen urn with
lid, painted in three colours, was found, and, besides, a great many
fragments of pottery. I made excavations also at six other places in
Ometepec, for inst. in the isthmus between Ometepec and Madera, but
without any results worthy of record.

I stayed in this charming double-island for more than a month, roving
through it on horse-back and on foot in all directions, ascending the
volcano, rowing and sailing over the delightful lagoons and bays,
that border its shores, and amongst which I shall late forget that
very paradise for the hunter, _Laguna de Santa Rosa_ and _Charco
Verde_. Having left Ometepec about the beginning of February, my next
visit was to «_tierra firme_», where I made some easily executed, but
not very successful excavations, immediately to the north of _San
Jorge_. From _Departemento de Rivas_’ I sailed to _Las Isletas_, also
called _Los Corales_, an extremely beautiful little archipelago, just
southwards of _Granada_. The whole group owes its existence to the
volcano _Mombacho_, which towers high above it, the islands consisting
exclusively of the remains of one or more eruptions of _Mombacho_. But
the vegetation here is so powerful and luxuriant, that it has changed
those piles of black stones into smiling islands, which the traveller
is never tired of admiring. Only on the outside of the archipelago,
where the often angry lake of Nicaragua has checked the development
of the verdant cover, the black, gloomy basalt is still open to the
view, lashed by white-foaming waves. In several of the islets statues
were measured and delineated, but unfortunately the photographic
apparatus could not be used on this occasion. After a stay of some days
among _Las Isletas_ and a short visit to _Granada_ for the purpose
of completing my photographic outfit, I set sail for _Zapatera_.
On my arrival I encamped for a long time on the playa of _Bahia de
Chiquero_. Along the playa of the semi-circular bay there are now five
houses, the homes of as many families, being the only inhabitants
at the present time of this large and fertile island, which was, no
doubt, formerly populated by many thousands of Niquirans, possessing
rich towns and splendid temples. The islet of _Ceiba_ is situated off
Bahia de Chiquero (see map 2). According to my opinion, _Zapatera_ is
certainly a volcanic island, but in this manner, that its north-western
part is the summit of a sunken volcanic cone, Bahia de Chiquero being
the crater itself, the narrow, elevated mountain ridge which surrounds
the bay, forming the edge of the crater and the islet of Ceiba the
continuation of this edge, _Laguna de Apoyo_, situated scarcely one
kilometer from the shore, may then be regarded as a side-crater.

_Zapatera_ exhibits an abundant variety of beautiful scenery,
delightful valleys, watered by streams and rivulets, fertile
elevated plains, magnificent mountain-cones, clothed in verdure to
the very summits, and bays and lagoons offering excellent harbours.
Unfortunately I had not an opportunity of examining, in an archæologic
point of view, more than a part of the north side of the island and
the islet of Ceiba. My kind hosts of the settlement in the island, Don
JOSÉ LOBO, Donna JULIA SOLORZANO, S:rita VIRGINIA MORA, Don JACINTO
MORA and others, zealously assisted me in my zoological as well as
archæological investigations. Through their warm-hearted benevolence
my stay in Zapatera became the most pleasant remembrance of my long
journey.

The results of my antiquarian researches in _Zapatera_ may be referred
to three stations: 1:0. The first station is _Punta del Sapote_; the
extreme north-western point of the island, where statues, potteries,
and stone relics were found. This station is beyond all comparison
the most important one, because it has never, as far as I know, been
examined, nor even mentioned. It possesses so much greater importance,
as several statues were found in their original position, thus
affording an insight into the manner how they were used. 2:0. The
second station is _Punta de las Figuras_. It forms part of the edge of
the crater, sloping softly towards the lake, between Laguna de Apoyo
and Bahia de Chiquero. It has been previously visited by SQUIER, who
has given figures of several of the statues. Besides those mentioned
by him, many of which I did not find, I lighted upon some that had
escaped his attention. In this locality only insignificant remains of
pottery were met with. 3:0. The third station is the little island
of _Ceiba_, which, instead of statues, that are wanting, offers some
very well preserved rock-carvings of evidently very ancient date, and,
besides, valuable relics of earthen-ware and stone. Although my visit
to Zapatera was posterior in time to my stay in Ometepec, I shall begin
the detailed description of the antiquities with those of the first
station in Zapatera.

[Illustration]




I

STATUES IN PUNTA DEL SAPOTE.


Punta del Sapote forms a broad, rounded peninsula, the greatest length
of which is in N.E. and S.W. Its middle part is a large plateau,
about 150 m. high, sloping rapidly both towards the lake and the neck
of the peninsula, and thus forming an isolated height of somewhat
more than one kilometer in length by scarcely one kilometer in
breadth. The central portion of this plateau is perfectly level and,
judging by the numerous statues met with here, and the regular form
of the stone-mounds, round which they were placed, appears to have
been a sacred place during the Niquiran period. On the very isthmus
between the peninsula and the island of _Zapatera_ rose a conical
stone-structure, 30-40 m. high; it consisted of enormous, unhewn
blocks, placed upon one another in pretty regular layers. Its diameter
at the base might be estimated at about 40 m. The top of the cone was
truncated, and appeared to form a plane of 6-8 m. in diameter. The
steep sides were so densely covered by spinous bushes and lians, that
I was soon obliged to desist from my attempts to mount the summit.
The whole structure resembled a kind of beacon, and has possibly been
a place of sacrifice, although its dimensions were so large, that it
cannot well be regarded as such a «sacrificial pillar» as is mentioned
by PETER MARTYR under the name of «_Tezarit_». Maybe a little «casita»
has stood on the platform above. Something of the same kind is known
from _Uxmal_.

Due north of this cone, on the top of the above mentioned plateau, were
six stone-mounds of oval form, but of very different size. The largest
(Pl. 41: 1) measured about fifty m. in length by thirty m. in breadth,
the smallest (Pl. 41: 6) about fifteen m. in length by somewhat less
than half in breadth. The greatest diameter of each mound was in N. and
S. The stones of these mounds varied of course in size, but for the
most part they were large, more or less cubical, from half a meter to
one meter long and about half a meter broad. Their often regular shape
and pretty plane sides, particularly in the mound 1, might lead one to
infer that some of them have been hewn, and have formed the foundations
and possibly also the walls of buildings, the ground plans of which are
indicated by the form of the mounds and the situation of the statues,
of which we are soon going to speak.


STONE-MOUND 1.

At the mound 1 (Pl. 41), the largest of all, and the one situated
farthest to the north and west, several statues were found remaining
in the same position, that they originally must have occupied, because
the mound was still surrounded by six figures, standing in its
circumference; and larger or smaller fragments of the pedestals of
three others were found in the ground, although the statues themselves
were thrown down beside them, and more or less broken. Judging by the
regular distances between these statues, it is probable, that there
have been twelve figures standing in the periphery of this building or
temple. The fact that those remaining in the ground fronted outwards,
and that their backs, which were turned towards the building, were not
smooth, but only plane-cut, strengthens my hypothesis that the figures
have formed part of a stone- or logwall enclosing the building. All
those statues of the mound 1, of which the upper parts remained, with
the exception of D, and another not delineated one, carried on their
heads a more or less long and broad projection in the form of a tenon,
and on this account I venture to propose the hypothesis, that they have
served to support the wall-plate of a more or less circular building.
All the statues were monoliths, cut from blocks of blackish basalt of a
pretty considerable hardness. The roof itself has probably been covered
with palm leaves, a supposition confirmed by certain indications in
CEREZEDA and OVIEDO. That the temples should have been open, as SQUIER
seems to think, I venture to doubt, on account of the above described
form of the statues; this appears to show that they must have been
united with one another by a wall, probably of cut stones.


A

Pl. 1.

Male, standing figure, in an easy posture, with the arms hanging
straight down. It stood quite upright, but was buried in the earth
to the elbows; by digging round it, it was laid bare to just below
the knees. It was the finest and most nobly sculptured of all the
Nicaraguan statues that I have had an opportunity of seeing. The face,
neck, and chest were carefully elaborated, the mouth closed with full
lips, the Adam’s apple marked out at the throat, the muscles of the
chest, as well as of the arms, correctly rendered; the hands on the
contrary were somewhat stiff, with the thumbs in the same plane with
the other fingers. The shoulders, elbows, and hips were well formed
(the arms were, however, not detached from the body), but passed
gradually backwards into the plane-cut back of the stone. The head
was covered with a large, rounded hood or cap, projecting above, and
drawn out in rounded flaps at the sides of the neck. Upwards and
backwards this hood passed into a kind of capital, ornamented at the
sides with a semi-circular depression, bordered by a rounded rim, with
globularly enlarged ends. The tenon-shaped projection above the head
was unusually large, tapering upwards, surrounded in front by a double
frame, at the sides by a simple, broad, sharply cut one. The statue
was perfectly equilateral. It did not seem to have been exposed to any
injury whatever, and was on the whole the best preserved of all in this
locality. The whole length of the statue from the upper edge of the
tenon to the knee was 225 cm., the breadth across the shoulders 58 cm.,
the length of the tenon 65 cm.


B

Pl. 2 and 3.

Female, standing figure, its head slightly bent forwards, and its
arms hanging straight down. It was found erect, but imbedded in the
earth to the navel; the head was broken off, but was found close to
the statue. The statue was very well sculptured, but not so carefully
finished as the preceding one. The forehead was adorned with a low
turban or round band, upon which was placed the heavy capital, with
carvings in relief on the sides. The capital was surmounted by the
square-shaped tenon, the lower part of which was surrounded by twenty
staves with rounded tips. These ornaments seem to indicate, that in
this statue, as well as in the former one, which was adorned with a
double frame, the lower part of the tenon has been visible, and only
its uppermost portion inserted into the plate of the building. The face
and chest were well preserved, although not so accurately rendered as
in A. The mouth was half-open, the eyes were well marked, deep cut, the
ears hidden by large, square, flat, and grooved pieces. The breasts
were held up by a double, round band. The breadth across the shoulders
was extraordinarily great. The shoulders were high and thin, the arms
very short and feeble in proportion to the body, not entirely detached,
but much more so than in A. The length of the statue from the upper
edge of the tenon to the knee was 226 cm., the breadth across the
shoulders 66 cm.; the length of the tenon 34 cm.


C

Pl. 4.

Male, half-sitting figure, with straight hanging arms; of considerably
less size than A and B, and very badly damaged. The head and neck
were broken off, and crushed into small fragments, impossible to
reconstruct. The pedestal was round, column-shaped, without any
ornaments. The figure had powerful arms, detached from the sides of the
body. The legs were unusually thick and strong, the feet clumsy, with
thick, short toes. In the middle of the chest there was a carved oval,
with a little circle in its centre. The length of the statue from the
shoulder to the sole of the foot was 110 cm., the breadth across the
shoulders 56 cm.


C 1

Not figured.

Male, sitting figure, with its hands crossed on its knees. The pedestal
was square, remaining erect in the ground. The statue itself was
broken in six pieces, its face entirely crushed. It carried on its
head a round, column-shaped head-dress, similar to that delineated in
figure F, ornamented with transverse furrows and ending upwards in a
tenon. The ears were hidden by square, flat pieces 21 cm. in length,
resembling those of figure B. The head itself was 39 cm. long from the
base of the head-dress to the chin; 31 cm. broad across the forehead.
The breadth across the shoulders was 60 cm.


D

Pl. 5.

Male, standing figure. Head, chest with arms, and upper part of legs
broken off, and lying in four pieces on the ground. The pedestal
was square, with the upper part ornamented with angular wreaths; it
remained fixed in the ground in its original place, and carried still
the feet and the legs (to the knees) of the figure. The face was of
quite a different type from those of A and B, with very prominent
cheek-bones, large lips, and strongly protruding under-jaw; it was
adorned with a crown-shaped head-gear. The ears were also here hidden
by flat pieces, thickening upwards, with the lower corners rounded.
The back of this statue, as well as its position in the periphery of
the stone-mound, points to its having formed part of the wall of the
building; but it seems not, however, to have served the purpose of
supporting the roof, because the upper part of the crown was finely
chiselled, and exhibited no trace of a tenon. It differed in this point
from all the other statues in the circumference of the mound 1, with
the exception of E 1, that was situated almost opposite to D at the
western longside. The height of the head from the upper rim of the
crown to the lower edge of the chin was 45 cm. The length of the trunk
from the shoulders to the thighs was 60 cm. The breadth across the
shoulders was 54 cm.


D 1

Not figured.

At a distance of 5 m. from D, in the periphery of the mound, there
rose obliquely from the ground a male, half-sitting statue with its
arms crossed. The head and the uppermost part of the chest with
the exception of the right shoulder were wanting, and could not be
identified among the existing fragments. It wore a beard reaching to
the crossed arms, being in this respect as well as in posture and
workmanship very like F. It measured 102 cm. from the shoulder to the
thighs. The breadth across the shoulders seemed to have been less than
50 cm.


D 2

Not figured.

Near the place that ought to have been occupied by the next statue,
there were lying fragments of an unusually narrow, square pedestal or
pillar. It was narrower than the following E, but in other respects it
resembled this more than it did any of the others found here.


E

Pl. 5.

Contrary to the other images of this mound, indeed, of this whole
locality, it did not represent a human figure, but formed a square
pillar, provided with carvings on its front side. It carried a narrower
superstructure (tenon), bordered in front by a sharp-cut frame, 6 cm.
broad, 3 cm. deep. The carvings on the front side of the pillar itself
consisted of wreaths somewhat more than 2 cm. deep with a breadth
varying from 3 to 5 cm. They appeared to represent the head of an
animal with an eye surrounded by two concentric circles. The sides of
the pillar were narrower, smooth, without any traces of wreaths, but
bordered by a square-cut frame, 6 cm. broad and 3 cm. deep. The back of
the pillar, which was turned towards the building, was rough, without
any frame. The front side was provided with a frame only above, and
along the eastern side. The front side of the pillar was 50 cm. broad,
the lateral sides 37 cm. broad. The tenon was 40 cm. in height by 38
cm. in breadth. The pillar was so deeply imbedded in the ground, that
in spite of our digging strenuously, I did not succeed to lay bare more
than about 125 cm. of its length, reckoned from the upper edge of the
tenon.


E 1

Not figured.

Male, standing, much damaged. The human figure supported on his head
the head of a massive animal of the feline genus, by its form most
reminding one of the _African_ or _Persian_ lion(!). The statue was
thrown down and broken in several pieces; only the head of the animal
was so far preserved as to enable one to discern something of the
original sculpture. Upon this head was part of a square tenon. The
length of the statue from the upper edge of the forehead to the thighs
was 84 cm., the breadth across the shoulders 39 cm., the length of the
face 24 cm. The head of the animal was 54 cm. high and 52 cm broad.


E 2

Not figured.

Fragments of a female, sitting statue were shattered in the vicinity
of the place, that should have been occupied by the tenth statue. The
head was adorned with a turban-shaped head-dress, without any trace of
a tenon. It is, however, very uncertain whether this statue has formed
part of the series.

Between the last-mentioned statue and F there was not the least vestige
to be found of that statue which ought to have been the eleventh in
number, when reckoned from A.


F

Pl. 6, 7, and 8.

Male, half-sitting figure, with its right arm hanging straight down,
and its left one bent, and resting on the chest. According to my
impression, received on regarding the statue and sketching it, it
represented a chieftain or warrior with a mask before his face and a
helmet on his head. I have arrived at this conclusion from the reasons,
viz. that the face was here incomparably much stiffer than in the
other images, without the slightest attempt of indicating the muscles,
the cheeks, or the mouth; further that the eyes were marked by two
concentric circles with a little (peeping-)hole in the centre, and
that the whole face and the covering of the head were so much broader
proportionally to the breadth of the body than in the other statues.
(A somewhat similar head was found on the heavily injured statue at
the mound 5.) The head-cover may be considered to exhibit the form
of a helmet; this reached to the shoulders at both sides, hiding the
ears completely; but nearly at the place of the ears there was on each
side a shallow circular depression with a small excavation, probably
representing a hole, in the centre. From the lower part of the helmet
a thick elevation, grooved length-wise in front, came down over the
chest. It may be regarded as representing a breast-armour, or possibly
a beard. From the face itself, below the nose, a piece of the same
shape as the just described elevation was seen to descend, but it was
of much smaller dimensions. The left shoulder with the bent arm was
somewhat more raised than the right. Both shoulders were uncommonly
large and broad, so that the artist almost seems to have intended to
indicate the blade-bone. The arms were pressed close to the body,
disproportionately narrow when viewed from the front, but more than
sufficiently broad when viewed from the side. On its left bent fore-arm
the statue held a little round shield, at the anterior margin of which
the hand projected, showing, unusually enough, the thumb of the same
length with the index. The chest and abdomen were sculptured with some
signs of muscles. The legs were short and thick, the feet clumsy, with
no traces of toes. The image stood on a pedestal, the upper part of
which showed a deep cavetto. The pedestal was deeply immersed into the
ground. Immediately above the helmet was the square tenon. The length
of the statue from the upper edge of the tenon to the upper edge of
the pedestal was 207 cm. The breadth across the shoulders was 57 cm.,
that of the head 36 cm. The statue was on the whole well preserved, and
stood, no doubt, in its original situation.

As it seems to be beyond a doubt that the above described statues,
which were found standing more or less erect, and at almost equal
distances, nearly five meters from one another, remained in the
situations where they had been originally placed, it cannot be
considered too bold, to suppose that we have here before us an ancient
temple exhibiting an example of how such a building might be arranged
with the Niquirans. It is evident that the ground-plan of the edifice
has been a broad oval, and it is highly probable, on account of the
back of the statues not being elaborated, but only roughly cut, that
it has not been open, but enclosed by walls, the statues serving as
pilasters. However, it must be admitted that this latter circumstance
is far from being proved. The figures A and B, being larger than the
others in the periphery, and more deeply fixed in the ground, may
possibly have stood at each side of the entrance or perhaps of a flight
of steps, leading up into the temple. The roof was probably supported
by a plate of stone or wood, carrying light rafters, covered with
palm leaves or such like materials.


STONE-MOUND 2.

This mound, also oval, was much smaller than mound 1; its longer
diameter was eighteen meters, the shorter twelve. It was situated due
E. of 1, separated from it by a depression in the ground, ten to twelve
meters in breadth, and was made up of more or less irregular stones. It
is impossible to decide whether this mound has also been surrounded by
a series of statues, and in such a case, by which, because even those
statues which were found in the neighborhood of it, did not remain
in situ, but were overthrown, and more or less broken. The same was
also the case with the four remaining stone-mounds. Thus I shall only
briefly indicate their situations, and then return to the description
of the statues in the order that they were measured and delineated.


STONE-MOUND 3.

It was situated due S. of mound 2, and held rather the same dimensions,
but it was less symmetrical in form. Near it only R and R 1, two large
stone-slabs, lids, or parts of a wall, ornamented with human figures in
high-relief, were found.


STONE-MOUND 4.

Due S. of mound 1. Respectively twelve and ten meters in diameter. Near
it the statues M, P and Q were found, none of which can, however, be
with certainty alleged to have been roof-supporter. P has surely stood
quite free.


STONE-MOUND 5.

Situated furthest southwards, of the same dimensions as mound 2, but
containing a much less quantity of stones. Only one statue, F 1, was
found there.


STONE-MOUND 6.

The smallest of all, situated furthest to the east, of a more irregular
form. In its vicinity three statues were found, of which only one, O,
was delineated. The others were crushed into small fragments.

The smaller objects found by excavations made in, and beside these
mounds, will be spoken of in connection with the other ceramic relics,
discovered in Ometepec and Zapatera.

I now return to the description of the several statues.


G

Pl. 9 and 10.

This statue, a double figure, was dug up out of the ground between
the mounds 1 and 2. It has probably stood free, because considerable
portions of its back were well elaborated. It is quite evident, that
it has not served to support a roof, as the upper part of the head
of the upper figure wanted every trace of a tenon, and was carefully
finished. It represented a male figure, somewhat stooping, with bent
arms, the hands leaning on the hips. Upon this human figure that of an
animal was seated, embracing with its fore-paws the head of the male
figure. The animal was probably intended to represent a monkey. The
male figure had an ugly face, with a long straight nose; the eyes were
formed by quite circular cavities, the mouth was widely open, and the
chin very short. The ears were covered by thick, square, flat pieces,
as in the image B. The neck was long, the shoulders were much raised,
large and powerful; the arms were bent, pressed close to the sides of
the body, very narrow when seen from the front, broad and flat when
seen side-ways. The chest and stomach were pretty roughly worked; the
muscles however were sharply marked. The legs were short, without any
trace of muscles or even of knees. The feet were completely wanting,
the legs being abruptly cut off. The second figure, the monkey, rested
its lower jaw upon the head of the principal figure, clasping the hind
part of it with its long fingers. The head was large, with prominent
muzzle and jaws, low, curved forehead, and broad nose, with round
nostrils. The hanging ears were long and broad, rounded backwards. The
mouth was open, showing strong, sharp teeth. The fore-legs or arms
were very long, the fore-arm was bent at a right angle to the upper
arm, the shoulder-blades were very broad and powerful. The back was
strongly curved inwards, the tail long, longer than the animal itself,
hanging straight down. The hind legs were short, strongly bent, drawn
up towards the abdomen, and abruptly cut off above the feet, as in the
principal figure. The length of the statue from the top of the animal’s
head to the upper edge of the pedestal was 175 cm. The breadth of the
human figure across the shoulders was 31 cm.; the breadth of the monkey
across the shoulders was 21 cm.


G 1

Not figured.

It was of the same kind as G, i. e. representing a human figure, on
whose shoulders and head an animal was seated. It was much damaged,
and almost impossible to delineate. The anterior portion of the
animal’s head was crushed, as were also the legs and arms of the human
image, whose face seemed designed to represent a skull with a long
neck. The face of the principal figure was 21 cm. long. The length of
the animal from the crown of the head to the root of the tail was 50
cm. The legs and claws of this animal were larger than those of the
monkey in G.


G 2

Not figured.

Male torso, impossible to complete. It was lying near G, and seemed to
have belonged to the mound 2. It measured 57 cm. from the shoulder to
the thighs. The breadth across the shoulders was 48 cm.


H

Pl. 11.

Male, sitting image. This is the first representative of a kind of
idol, of which, as far as I know, not more than a single one from
Central America previously has been figured.[6] SQUIER has also given
an illustration of a statue from _Pensacola_ (Las Isletas), in which a
head of an animal is placed upon the head of a human figure, but there
the animal’s head evidently serves only as a helmet; this seems also
to be the case with the above-mentioned image E 1, from the western
side of the stone-mound 1. With regard to the present image, on the
contrary, I believe that the head of the animal is the more important
figure, representing a deity, the human figure being nothing but the
bearer of the god, viz. a kind of caryatid. I formed this opinion on
account of the very strongly marked supporting postures exhibited by
the three human figures, bearing heads of animals, which follow next in
my description. Of the image H only the upper portion remained; this
showed, that the human figure had been sitting, or half-sitting, but
not in what manner the arms had been used as supports. The head of the
animal was a splendid head of a jaguar, very finely elaborated, and
pretty well preserved. The mouth was somewhat open, showing distinctly
elaborated lips, blunt molars and sharp, large cuspids. The muzzle was
somewhat longer than necessary, the nostrils oval, somewhat widened;
the eyes formed oval cavities, powerfully cut; the ears were rather
small, with the margins, as it were, indented. Two volutes and a
powerful intumescence at the sides were possibly designed to mark the
strong muscles of the head. The human figure was carefully elaborated.
The face was well preserved, with the exception of the mouth and the
chin, that were cut off with a chisel, or some other keen instrument.
The forehead was rather low and separated from the head of the jaguar,
by a roll or fillet. The nose was large, almost straight; the eyes
were rather small, the cheeks full, the cheek-bones not prominent. The
ears were unusually small, of natural shape. The neck was particularly
vigorous, the muscles of the breast well developed. The shoulders
and upper arms were full, and well cut, the arms not quite detached
from the sides. The back of the statue not being elaborated seems to
indicate that it has been placed against or in a wall. That it has not
served the purpose of supporting a roof, is proved by the finely hewn
upper side of the jaguar’s head with its erect ears. The head of the
jaguar was 63 cm. long; its height from the top to the lower hinder
corner was 42 cm. The height of the ear was 10 cm. The length of the
face of the human figure was 24 cm.

[6] SQUIER, l. c., p. 64, and the plate facing the same page.


I

Pl. 12.

Male, kneeling figure, supporting the head of a great vulture or «Rey
de Zopilotes». It belonged to the same category as H, but has probably
stood isolated, as the back was as neatly cut as the front. The head of
the vulture was colossal in proportion to the human figure supporting
it, and very carefully sculptured. The beak was very true to nature,
the eye formed a semi-circular cavity, the anterior corner of the
eye was well indicated. Backwards projected a massive round process,
a sort of crest on the back of the head. On the top of the head was
a tenon-shaped projection, which, however, could hardly have served
the purpose of a tenon, as it was unusually thin in comparison with
the tenons found on the statues around the mound 1. It may possibly
have been designed to represent the comb of the beak of the vulture,
though in such a case it was placed too far backwards. The anterior
part of the head and the cheeks were carved with softness and elegance.
Behind the head of the human figure the head of the vulture was united
to its support by a snailshaped spiral (volute) with wide aperture.
Although the kneeling male figure was not perhaps so well worked as
the image H, yet it was well balanced, and of an easy posture. The
forehead was straight, the nose slightly curved, the mouth closed,
the lower lip thin, prominent; the cheeks were rather thin, the ears
disproportionately large, and placed too far backwards. The neck
was long, the Adam’s apple was indicated on the throat. The chest
was rather little developed, the shoulders and upper arms vigorous,
the hands pressed against the sides of the legs. The male organ was
placed high up on the abdomen. The legs below the knees were of equal
thickness throughout, without any trace of muscles, smoothly rounded
backwards, without feet. The pedestal being broken, the statue was
thrown down in the middle of the «plaza», the open place or square
between the mounds 1, 2, 3 and 4. The length of the vulture’s head from
the anterior edge of the beak to the posterior edge of the process at
the back of the head was 100 cm., the height of the head from the top
to the inferior edge of the lower jaw 37 cm. The whole length of the
statue from the upper edge of the tenon-shaped projection to the upper
edge of the pedestal was 154 cm. The upper part of the pedestal formed
a square plinth, on which the human figure was kneeling.


K

Pl. 13.

Male, sitting figure, with its head strongly bent forward, supporting
on its shoulders and the back of its head the large head of an animal,
which was possibly meant to represent the head of a tortoise or a
lizard. This head was rather little elaborated, evenly rounded above,
having in front a round, beak-shaped mouth. A circular cavity before
and over the posterior corner of the mouth represented the eye. At the
back this head carried two high, rectangular, double plates, which
may possibly be regarded as representing the beginning of the back
armour of the tortoise, or perhaps the scales of a lizard or a serpent.
The human figure was very well elaborated; next to the figure A it
was certainly, from an artistic point of view, the most carefully
finished one of all the statues at Punta del Sapote. The head was bent
strongly forwards, as if depressed by the gigantic load; the forehead
was high, the nose straight, the eyes were well cut out, the cheeks
rounded, the ears small. The neck was stretched forth, very thick
and muscular. The shoulders were not so powerful as should have been
expected from the thickness of the neck, but they were neatly molded.
The trunk and the back were very nobly and elegantly sculptured, and
formed the best portion of the statue. The upper arms were rigorous
and well proportioned, the lower arms perhaps a little too short. The
hands were closed, resting on the knees. The legs were thick, and not
so well worked as the upper portion of the statue, the feet clumsy,
without distinct toes. The figure was seated on a high socle, with a
low foot-stool under its feet. As was demonstrated by the unusually
careful workmanship expended on the back portions, the statue has quite
certainly stood isolated. The height of the statue from the summit of
the head of the animal to the upper edge of the pedestal was 137 cm.
The length of the face of the human figure was 20 cm. The length of the
head of the animal was 82 cm., its greatest height 36 cm. This statue
was pretty deeply imbedded in the earth, and was found nearly in the
middle of the open place between the stone-mounds 2, 3, and 4.


K 1

Not figured.

Male, standing figure. This statue did not belong to the same category
with H, I and K, but had probably served as support in the wall of a
building, because the turban-shaped head-dress was surmounted by a
tenon, and the back was not elaborated. It had suffered so much from
the violence of human hands, and from the effects of the climate, that
its outlines could hardly be distinguished. From the upper edge of the
tenon to the thighs it measured 123 cm. The length of the face was 24
cm. It was found immediately north of the mound 6.


L

Pl. 14.

Male, sitting figure, with its head bent forward, supporting the
gigantic head of a crocodile. The back side being only plane-cut, it
has probably stood against a wall; but as it wanted a tenon, it did
not seem to have supported the roof. In posture it much resembled K
and M, but it was worked without the elegance that distinguished K. It
is highly probable that the head of the animal represented that of a
crocodile, although it was executed, in a rough manner, the style being
altogether peculiar to this statue; the head was square-cut and the
outlines not at all rounded. The characteristic knob or protuberance
on the snout of the crocodile was boldly molded, but square. The eyes
were marked by triangular cavities, the teeth pyramidal, sharp-pointed.
The ears were the only portions of the head exhibiting curved outlines;
their form was almost human. The human figure, as has been said before,
was of far coarser workmanship than the statue K. The face was well
preserved, the forehead high, the nose small, the mouth half-opened,
the ears large and hanging, resembling those of a dog. The neck was
very long and thick. The muscles of the breast were vigorous. The arms
were fleshy and vigorous, straight, stretched down, leaning with the
palms against the upper surface of the block, on which the figure was
seated. The thick fingers were extended straight down. The legs were
rather thick; the feet, which were short and clumsy, with slightly
indicated toes, rested on a little foot-stool. The figure, sitting with
the hands pressed against the stone block, exhibited a posture quite
able to support a very heavy weight. The block that served as a seat,
had the form of a truncated pyramid. The statue was overthrown; it was
lying pretty close to the mound 2, between it and mound 1. The height
of the statue from the highest point of the head of the crocodile to
the upper edge of the pedestal was 147 cm. The length of the face of
the human figure was 19 cm. The length of the head of the crocodile was
91 cm., its height 47 cm.


M

Pl. 15.

Female, sitting with straight arms, the hands pressed against the
stone seat in a posture just able to sustain the pressure of a
heavy load. The head was wanting, but the well marked posture, as
compared with that of the just described figure, seems to justify the
conclusion that this figure has also supported upon its head the
large head of some animal. The entire figure was heavy and clumsy,
but the circumstance of the muscles of the body being indicated both
in front and behind, makes it not improbable that this statue has
stood insulated, like K. The arms were quite detached from the body,
and uncommonly thick and heavy, as were also the legs. The hands were
heavily pressed against the block, on which the figure was seated, the
right hand with the palm, the left one with the knuckles. The most
remarkable feature of this statue was perhaps the bench on which it
was seated; this was cut out from the block so as to be quite free and
detached. The statue, like all above described ones, was sculptured
from a single block, a monolith. The height of the statue from the
shoulders to the upper edge of the pedestal was 107 cm. The breadth
across the shoulders was 69 cm. It was found pretty close to the mound
4.


M 1

Not figured.

Male, standing figure, its head adorned by a high conical head-dress.
Very like the figure F. Its face was hidden by a mask, with round holes
for the eyes. It had a long, hanging beard or breast-armour. The arms
were stretched straight down. It was broken in four fragments, and was
found in the periphery of the mound 5.


N

Pl. 16.

Female, sitting figure, with a child in its lap. It has probably stood
insulated, as the back portions were pretty well elaborated, and,
besides, the pedestal was adorned with a free border, which was not
the case in any of the statues remaining in the circumference of the
mound 1. This statue was, more-over, remarkable by its large head, not
being turned straight forward, but somewhat upwards and side-ways. The
statue was rudely executed, far inferior in workmanship to most of
those mentioned before. There was no attempt at imitating the muscles
of the body; the arms and legs were thin and short, not detached from
the block. It was only in the molding of the face that some endeavours
to follow nature were to be detected; the eyes were formed by deep,
oval cavities; the nostrils and cheeks were indicated; the mouth was
closed, with thick lips; the ears were very large and projecting. The
short, vigorous neck was ornamented by a broad neck-lace, formed of
three round bands. The head was covered by a turban-shaped head-dress.
The right shoulder was somewhat higher than the left. On the front of
the body only the two semi-spherical breasts were elaborated; with
this exception, the chest and abdomen were on a line with the block
itself. The figure held before it a child or a smaller figure with
very large head, large, projecting ears, clumsy body, and short, thin
legs. In execution this statue strongly reminded of the figure η from
Punta de las Figuras, though it was superior with regard to the face.
It was found near the mound 3, but not in its periphery. The height
of the statue from the upper edge of the turban to the upper edge of
the pedestal was 170 cm. The length of the face from the lower edge of
the turban was 34 cm. The breadth across the shoulders was 60 cm. The
length of the smaller figure was 51 cm.


O

Pl. 17.

Female, standing figure. It reminded somewhat of the preceding one,
but was much better executed. It certainly had a free position, as the
back and shoulders were well sculptured. It carried on its head a very
large, round, thick slab of stone, between which and the head there
was a kind of turban, made of two round rolls. The face was unusually
broad, and particularly remarkable in that respect that the eyes were
placed obliquely. It was the only statue in which such was the case.
The nose was large, straight; the mouth broad, closed; the ears very
large, prominent, the left one longer than the right one. The shoulders
and breast were pretty well elaborated. The lower portions were broken
in many pieces. The diameter of the slab on the head was 72 cm.; its
thickness 45 cm. The length of the face from the lower edge of the
turban was 32 cm., its breadth 31 cm. The breadth across the shoulders
was 72 cm. The statue was found at the periphery of the mound 6.


P

Pl. 18.

Male, sitting figure, with crossed legs, and the hands crossed in
its lap. The figure was unusually small, and not very artistically
executed. The head was large and very broad, adorned by a low turban
with flaps projecting side-wise. The forehead was low, the nose large;
the eyes were formed by unusually large, circular cavities; the mouth
was small; the ears were large, but not so prominent as in the image O.
The chest and back were equally elaborated, though the muscles were but
slightly marked. The arms were long, and, unusually enough, cut out so
as to be perfectly detached from the sides. The legs were very short
and weak. The figure was seated immediately on the square pedestal,
that was surrounded above by a prominent border on all the sides. The
front of the pedestal was ornamented by an engraved cross, its sides
and back by rhombic figures, forming inter-woven garlands. This statue
has certainly been insulated. It measured 92 cm. from the upper edge of
the turban to the upper edge of the pedestal. The length of the face
from the lower edge of the turban was 25 cm., its breadth 35 cm. The
breadth across the shoulders was 54 cm.


Q

Pl. 19.

Male, sitting figure. The broad, short face showed it to appertain
to the same type as the figures N, O and P, which it resembled also
with regard to the careless workmanship. It wore on its head a conical
hat, with a raised, circular ornament on each side; the hat widened
below into a thick brim, adorned by an ornament in relief, formed like
a chain. The face was but little elaborated, the forehead low, the
nose long, broad, and straight; the eyes were middle-sized, circular
cavities; the mouth was broad, open, almost square. The ears were long,
extending, with _perforated_ lobes. The neck was short. The chest
and abdomen showed some signs of muscles. The shoulders were quite
straight. The arms were narrow, without muscles; the left one hanging
straight down, with the fingers extended; the right one bent upward
towards the shoulder, with the fingers doubled, so as to form a hole.
It has probably clasped a lance or stick, or something of that kind.
The legs were rather large, broken above the knees. The back of the
statue was only plane-cut. The length from the lower edge of the hat to
the thighs was 103 cm.; that of the face from the same point 33 cm.;
the breadth of the face 32 cm. The breadth across the shoulders was 52
cm. The statue was found near the western margin of the mound 4.


R

Pl. 20.

High-relief, representing a female figure. With regard to the type of
the face, it came near to the immediately preceding ones. It was a
big-headed figure of full size, sculptured in feeble high-relief on
a large rectangular slab of stone, about 25 cm. in thickness. It had
been very badly injured, so that only the left half of the figure could
be anyhow discerned. The face was almost circular, the eye a circular
cavity, the nose wanting, the mouth closed, the ear large, hanging,
like the ear of a dog, the shoulder rounded, the arm bent inwards
across the body, the leg slightly bent. The figure has been surrounded
by a frame, nearly 20 cm. broad, and 4 cm. high. The length of the
figure to the thighs was 106 cm. The length of the face 38 cm.; the
breadth of the face 37 cm.

       *       *       *       *       *

With regard to the type of the face, the figures found in this locality
may be divided into two distinctly different classes viz., the images A
to M, with oval faces, and, in general, of more artistic workmanship,
and the images N, O, P, Q, R, with broad, almost circular faces, and
more rudely executed. The latter are possibly of more ancient date than
the former. None of the latter was found at the mound 1.

[Illustration]




II

STATUES IN PUNTA DE LAS FIGURAS.


Squier visited this locality in December 1849; it is a little plateau,
formed by an extension of the margin of the crater surrounding the
Bahia de Chiquero. To the west it slopes pretty abruptly towards the
Bahia; to the north it shelves gradually towards the low promontory,
_Punta de las Figuras_, which is separated from the south-eastern point
of the islet of Ceiba, _Punta de Pantheon_, by a sound, 50 m. broad; to
the east the plateau descends rapidly towards the lake of Nicaragua,
and to the south it falls steeply towards the little crater-lake
_Laguna de Apoyo_. It is densely covered by gigantic trees, and between
these by under-brush and lians, confusedly entangled. Here I found
five large stone-mounds, that may possibly be the remains of temples
or other large buildings. The relative situation of these mounds is
approximately shown by the plan Pl. 41. Besides these larger mounds,
which were more or less oval, with the longer diameter varying from
20 to 40 meters, several smaller, and more irregular ones, were met
with. These, however, are not indicated in the plan. The mound I was
that nearest to Bahia de Chiquero, the mound V the nearest to Laguna
de Apoyo. In this locality no statues were found that could with
any degree of certainty be regarded as remaining in their original
places, nor were any lying or standing in such a position that it
could be decided, whether they had been placed _in the peripheries_ of
the mounds, _within_ the buildings, or _in the open spaces_ between
the mounds. In this respect the former locality was by far more
interesting. The statues were less well preserved, and had evidently
been subjected to greater violence, probably also to attempts at
removal. Indeed we know through SQUIER, that such has been the case.
Some statues had been transported to Granada before his visit, and
SQUIER himself sent some to Washington.


α

Pl. 21 and 22.

      It has been before figured by SQUIER, l.
    c., vol. ii., in the plate facing p. 54, fig. 2, and
    described pp. 53, 54, and 58. In SQUIER’s
    list it has the no. 2. BANCROFT has
    mentioned it in «The Native Races of the Pacific
    shores of North America», vol. iv., p. 41, with a
    copy of SQUIER’s figure p. 42, fig. 3.

It was a male figure, sitting on the ground, with the knees drawn high
up, and the head bent forwards. On the back of the head and the neck,
there rested a solid mass of stone, gradually passing into the outlines
of the neck and the back. This mass tapered upwards, and seemed to
have passed into a pyramidical tenon, which, however, was broken off.
The face was broad, with rounded retiring forehead, the nose long and
straight. The eyes were formed by circular cavities; the mouth was
half-open; the ears were large and prominent. By the shape of the
face, the figure recalled the image Q from _Punta del Sapote_. The
neck was much too thick to be a human neck. The chest was only little
elaborated, the shoulders much raised, the arms well cut, the left hand
pressed against the left foot, the right one drawn back somewhat more.
The legs were well molded, like the arms; the knees drawn up nearly
to the chin. The back was round-cut. The pedestal was carefully hewn,
forming a square pillar of considerable height, tapering downwards. Its
uppermost portion, on which the figure was seated, formed a kind of
_round_ capital, ornamented on the side by a triple engraved angular
wreath. The height of the statue from the crown of the head to the
upper margin of the pedestal was 80 cm.; the length of the face was 34
cm., its breadth 25 cm. The breadth across the shoulders was 44 cm. The
statue has probably stood insulated. It was entire, lying south-west of
the stone-mound I, nearest to the shore of the Bahia (except the figure
γ) and had probably been the object of endeavours to remove it.


β

Pl. 23.

      It is figured by SQUIER, l. c., in the
    plate facing p. 65, and described pp. 64 and 65.
    BANCROFT, l. c., p. 40, fig. 2.

Male figure, sitting on the ground. With regard to the posture it came
most near to the image α, but could not be said to possess a human
aspect. Indeed it deserved, if any, to be called a monster. SQUIER
thought that it represented a tiger, but if we compare the head of the
present statue with the head of the jaguar in the statue H, from _Punta
del Sapote_, this opinion does not seem very likely. The face exhibited
a low, arched forehead, small oval eyes, a broad, flat, long nose or
muzzle with small, round nostrils. The mouth was not open. The upper
lip was clearly to be distinguished, although it had been broken. The
chin was broad; the ears were oval, placed far up. The neck was very
thick and powerful, the body colossal, with large abdomen. The whole
back of the body was also elaborated. The shoulders were highly raised,
the upper arm was long, broad and thick, the lower arm short, at a
right angle to the upper arm, the paws resting on the abdomen. The legs
were very short, especially the small of the legs. The feet were pretty
like human feet, with distinct toes. The upper part of the pedestal was
enlarged in the shape of an Ω, ornamented at the sides with a garland,
like that of the image α. The height of the statue from the highest
point of the trunk to the upper edge of the pedestal was 150 cm. The
height of the face was 40 cm., its breadth 30 cm. When found, it stood
upright, immediately north of the mound III.


γ

Pl. 24 and 25.

It is not mentioned by SQUIER.

Male, sitting figure. The head was broken off. The figure itself was
much damaged; but the pedestal was well preserved, and exhibited fine
ornaments. The chest of the figure was strongly arched, the upper
arm short and broad, the lower arm and the fingers were long. On the
sides of the cornice of the pedestal, there was a symmetrical ornament
of round coils; the sides of the pedestal itself were decorated with
an oval coil twisted about quite symmetrically, in an excavated
rectangular field; in front there was an angular ornament. The back of
the figure and of the pedestal was not elaborated, but rather rough. It
may thus be reasonably inferred that the statue has stood in or against
a wall. The height of the statue from the upper edge of the shoulders
to the lower edge of the feet was 52 cm. The height of the pedestal
from the upper edge to the beginning of the lower, uncut part, which
was intended to be imbedded in the ground, was 110 cm. This statue was
not found on the plateau of Punta de las Figuras, but had been dragged
off and was now lying, half in the water, on the shore of Bahia de
Chiquero.


δ

Pl. 25.

      Figured by SQUIER, l. c., on the plate
    facing p. 58, signed no. 4, treated pp. 54 and 58.
    BANCROFT, l. c., p. 40, fig. 1.

It was no more a statue, but only a pedestal. The little, sitting
figure described and designed by SQUIER was now entirely crushed and
moldered. The pedestal was, however, the most elaborately finished
of all found here. It was round, tapering gently downwards, adorned
upwards with the same kind of angular ornament, as that mentioned on
the front of the preceding pedestal; almost at the middle of its length
it was surrounded by a broad band, embellished in the same fashion. The
pedestal, lying on the ground, had quite the form of a canon. From the
upper edge to the lower broken end it measured 215 cm.; the diameter at
the upper end was 66 cm. It was found between the mounds I and II.


ε

Pl. 26.

      Figured by SQUIER, l. c., in the plate
    facing p. 58, signed no. 5, described p. 59.

Male, half-sitting figure, representing a very fat person with his
hands resting on his hips. The face was badly injured, but showed
that the forehead and the nose were straighter than those figured by
SQUIER. The ears were long, hanging, like the ears of a dog. The upper
arm was very short; the abdomen swollen. Legs and feet were thick and
clumsy. The back piece was very large in proportion to the figure, only
plane-cut, and seemed to indicate that the statue had formed part of
a wall or even served as a kind of coulisse or side-wall in a cella.
The lower part of the back piece was pierced with a circular hole;
another much larger hole perforates the pedestal, which was perfectly
unadorned. The statue measured 98 cm. from the crown of the head to the
sole of the foot. It was found lying near the preceding.


ζ

Pl. 27 and 28.

      Figured by SQUIER, l. c., on the
    plate facing p. 52, described p. 52 and 58.
    BANCROFT, l. c., p. 42, fig. 3.

Male, standing figure, with the hands resting on the abdomen. In this
statue also the back piece was very large, proportionately even larger
than in the preceding; on this account it may be conjectured to have
had a similar use. The face was rather large and round, the forehead
somewhat retiring, the eyes small, oval, the nose short, broad, and
straight, the mouth closed, with thick lips, the chin broad; the ears
were hidden by the projecting back piece which embraced, as it were,
and overlapped the face. The chest was well cut. The arms, when viewed
from the front, were very thin, pressed close to the sides of the
body and to the back piece; when seen from the side, they are, on the
contrary, broad and fleshy. The hands rested on the abdomen with the
fingers somewhat extended. The legs were rather clumsy. The broad back
piece projected above the head like a colossal mitre, ornamented in
front with bosses and scrolls, and surrounded by a broad frame. The
height of the entire statue from the top of the upper piece to the sole
of the figure’s foot, was 210 cm.; its greatest breadth from the chest
of the figure to the hinder margin of the back piece was 86 cm. The
height of the figure from the crown of the head to the sole of the foot
was 140 cm. The length of the face was 31 cm., its breadth across the
shoulders was 36 cm. It had been raised up at a recent date, and now
stood south of the mound Ι.


η

Pl. 29.

Not mentioned by SQUIER.

Male figure, sitting almost on the ground, bearing on the top of its
head another head with a large neck. It is by half statue, by half
high-relief. The body of the principal figure was cut out to the
shoulders; then followed a portion of the stone that was quite rude
on the sides and the back. On the front of this stone the neck and
head of the statue and the long-necked head of a man or an animal that
surmounts it, were sculptured in high-relief. The upper head had a low
forehead, small, round, excavated eyes, long nose or muzzle of equal
breadth, closed mouth, and long, prominent, hanging ears. The neck was
very long and was placed immediately upon the head of the principal
figure. The face of this figure presented a low forehead, large, oval,
excavated eyes, a short nose broadening downwards, thick cheeks, small
closed mouth, broad thick chin, and prominent, but not very long
ears. The neck was short and vigorous. The chest exhibited no sign of
muscles, being only a round-cut part of the original stone-pillar,
and passing directly into the abdomen, and then into the front of the
pedestal. The arms and legs were carved in a kind of relief. The hands
rested on the abdomen. The pedestal was cylindrical; its uppermost
portion, on which the figure was seated, was somewhat smaller than the
rest of it. The height of the statue from the top of the upper head to
the upper edge of the pedestal was 120 cm. The length of the upper face
was 14 cm. The face of the principal figure was 27 cm. long, 22 cm.
broad. The statue was found at the southern margin of the stone-mound
V, nearest of all the figures to Laguna de Apoyo.


θ

Pl. 30.

Not mentioned by SQUIER.

Fragment of a high-relief or one-sided statue with only the head cut
free. In comparison with the other high-reliefs found here, its size
was colossal. Contrary to all other Nicaraguan high-reliefs that I
have had an opportunity of seeing, it was wholly in profile. The slab
from which it was sculptured was very thin as compared to the size of
the figure, no more than 30 cm. in thickness. It was broken in more
than 20 pieces, only the head and part of the chest with the arm being
in such a state as allowed of their being delineated. The head was
slightly curved, carved on both sides, but having an eye, formed of two
concentric excavations, only on the left or upper side. The head was
truncated before, without any trace of a muzzle or mouth, and provided
backwards with a very well sculptured buck’s (?) horn, though only on
the upper side. The chest was indicated only by a slight curve. The
arm, on the contrary, was pretty well molded, and the fingers were
proportional. The lower part of the chest was quite unhewn, as was also
the hind portion of the lower part of the head. It carried on the head
a square crest or tenon, divided into three parts by transversal lines.
The length of the head was 53 cm., its height from the upper edge of
the tenon to the lower edge of the horn was 64 cm. The diameter of the
eye was 12 cm. The length of the arm from the shoulder to the tip of
the ringfinger was 102 cm. The statue was lying on the ground a little
west of the mound V.


ι

Pl. 31.

      Figured by SQUIER, l. c., p. 61,
    signed No. 9, described pp. 60, 61 and 62.
    BANCROFT, l. c., p. 44, fig. 6.

High-relief, male figure, on a slab about 40 cm. in thickness. It
represented a figure lying on its back, if the slab has been a
covercle, or standing, if it has been a part of a wall, with straight
arms, detached from the sides of the body. The face appeared to be
covered by a mask (compare the figure F of _Punta del Sapote_); this
seemed to be denoted by the large circular holes for the eyes, and the
broad, hanging breast-plate or beard; the ears were protected by two
flaps extending from the helmet or head-ornament. With the exception of
the stiff mask before the face, the figure was well elaborated, with
some hints of the muscles of the shoulders, abdomen, and legs. Above
the slab there was a projection, broadening upwards, which seemed
to be a repetition of the helmet of the head. The outer edges of the
slab formed a border five to six cm. broad and 3 cm. high. The slab
was broken in two pieces, the lower portion was found lying far from
the upper one. The entire slab measured 182 cm. from the upper edge of
the upper projection to the lower edge of the border below the feet;
its breadth across the body of the figure was 74 cm. The length of the
figure from the top of the head to the lower edge of the feet was 135
cm. The length of the face was 28 cm., its breadth 27 cm. The length
of the breast-plate from the chin was 30 cm. The breadth across the
shoulders 45 cm. The statue was found on the ground immediately north
of the mound I; the lower piece was found west of the mound III.


κ

Pl. 32.

Not mentioned by SQUIER.

Male figure in relief. Broken in several fragments and impossible to
reconstruct. Only the face could be delineated. The face was well
preserved and originally uncommonly well executed. It was quite
expressive; the forehead was broad, not low, covered with a round cap
or low turban; the eyes were narrow, elliptical, boldly cut; the nose
was straight, broadening downwards; the mouth half-open, with thin, but
well-formed lips; the cheeks were lean, but carefully sculptured; the
chin was broad and powerful. The ears were large, very prominent. The
length of the face from the lower edge of the turban to the lower edge
of the chin was 35 cm.; its breadth 26 cm. The thickness of the slab of
stone was about 30 cm. Most fragments of this relief were lying at the
western margin of the mound V.


λ

Pl. 32.

Not mentioned by SQUIER.

Relief representing a male figure with the face of a skull. It was of
much rougher workmanship than the reliefs before described. The face
was formed only by an evenly curved, broadly oval elevation, with two
circular cavities to mark the eyes, an irregularly triangular one for
the nose, and a linear one for the mouth. The chest was evenly rounded,
the arms only indicated by two round bands along the breast, ending
abruptly with five narrow, round staves, placed at right angles to the
arms, and designed to represent the fingers. The lower part of the
slab with the legs was lost. Above the head were two sugar-loaf-shaped
elevations, and above these a third one with parallel sides, downwards
rounded. The slab had square incisions at the same height with the neck
and the hands. The length of the figure from the crown of the head to
the beginning of the hip was 82 cm. The length of the face was 32 cm.;
its breadth 20 cm. The breadth across the shoulders was 24 cm.

       *       *       *       *       *

Several fragments of broken statues were found on the plateau, but so
shattered, disfigured, and intermixed with one another, that it would
have taken much time and patience to reconstruct them. Several of the
statues, mentioned by SQUIER as being in comparatively good condition,
for inst. his nos. 3, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, and 18 were no more to be
found in the place. Some of these have possibly been destroyed by human
violence or by the effects of the climate during the thirty years
between our visits, others may have been carried off to be deposited in
museums or to form the hearth-stone of some Indian rancho.

In general, the statues of this locality chiefly remind of the last
described group of statues at _Punta del Sapote_. Perhaps, from an
artistic point of view, they must be considered as inferior even to
these. None of the statues at _Punta de las Figuras_ can be compared as
a work of art, to the figures of the mound 1 at Punta del Sapote.

The fact that in most of the statues, found in Zapatera, the organs of
generation were represented, and often more conspicuous than natural,
gives corroboration to the suggestion of SQUIER that a phallic worship
or a worship of the reciprocal principles existed among the Niquirans.

[Illustration]




III

ROCK-CARVINGS IN THE ISLAND OF CEIBA.


Ceiba has certainly been densely populated in ancient times. This
fact is testified by the rich quantities of relics discovered there
from time to time. In _Rivas_ Dr. FLINT showed me objects of bronze,
stone, and earthen-ware as well as small ornaments of thin golden
plate, spirally twisted glass-staves a. o., that were found in Ceiba.
And although my own excavations did not turn out so productive as
I had been led to expect by the rich treasures I had seen from the
island, they, however, yielded extremely valuable contributions to
my collection. These will be spoken of below, in connection with the
results of my diggings in Zapatera and Ometepec. No statues are now to
be found in the island, but it is reported by tradition that several
were formerly to be found at the north side of the island, which were
carried off long ago to a hacienda in the isthmus. These statues
are said to have been comparatively small-sized. On the other hand,
the island is rich in rock-carvings, and its highest point, a flat
mountain ridge, level as floor, has, from this cause, received the
name of _Cerro de Pantheon_. This mountain ridge is, in my opinion,
the continuation of that edge of a crater which surrounds Bahia de
Chiquero. The carvings found on its south-western spur, _Punta de
Pantheon_, cut in the solid rock at a depth of two meters below the
lowest surface of the lake, prove that the island has sunk at a late
period, and thus corroborate my hypothesis of the earlier connection
between Ceiba and Zapatera. This connection has been dissolved by the
gradual sinking of the volcano.

The western portion of the island is plain, partly cultivated, partly
covered by bush, the eastern is very rugged. Cerro de Pantheon, its
highest point, is about 60 meters above the surface of the lake. This
mountain ridge is 80 to 100 meters in length by 10 to 15 in breadth,
and offers an extraordinarily well-fit place for rock-carvings. And,
indeed, the ancient inhabitants of the island have made such an eager
use of this opportunity that the whole crown of the ridge is densely
covered with sculptures. This crown, as has been mentioned before,
forms a perfectly level surface; indeed, it is not quite impossible
that human hands may have helped nature to level it. On the part of
the mountain chiefly occupied by the rock-carvings, the vegetation was
very scanty, consisting of low shrubs and stiff grass. I could not
detect any carvings on the different sides of the mountain, nor on the
large loose blocks of stone north of Cerro de Pantheon. But on large
flat or round blocks, detached long ago from the side of the mountain,
and lying all the way down to the southern shore at Punta de Pantheon,
numerous carvings were found. Such were also to be seen there in the
solid rock as well on land as on that part of the rock that stretches
into the lake. I can here give illustrations only of the lesser part
of the carvings. The wreaths were generally even, boldly cut, 4-6 cm.
broad, 2-3 cm. deep.


_a_

Pl. 37.

It represented the upper part of a human figure. The face was broad,
with round eyes, broad nose, and square mouth. The head was surmounted
by four plumes, meant, according to the conception of my Indians, to
represent a crown of feathers. On this account, they honoured the
figure with the name of «La Reyna». The chest was short and broad, the
arms very long, the hands circular, the left one much larger than the
right one, both provided with eight radiating fingers. The length of
the figure from the crown of the head to the lower edge of the breast
was 64 cm.; the breadth between the elbows 127 cm.


_b_

Pl. 37.

It may possibly have been intended to represent a very primitive human
figure. The face was formed by two concentric circles; the eyes and
the mouth were represented by three small shallow cavities. On the
head there was a kind of head-ornament, broader upwards, or possibly
the face of an animal, also marked with three cavities. The body was
a rectangular enlargement without arms, with a straight furrow in its
middle; from its lower edge there issued one long, straight leg, ending
in a short foot, broadening outwards. The entire length of the figure
was 82 cm.; the breadth of the face was 16 cm.


_c_

Pl. 37.

This was possibly also meant to be a human figure, though the legs were
wanting. The face was a broad oval, with three holes situated more
to the right, representing the eyes and the mouth. On the head was a
little, tiara-shaped ornament. The arms were short, without any traces
of hands. The whole length was 70 cm., the breadth of the face was 20
cm.


_d_

Pl. 37.

Human figure with arms and one leg. The face was nearly triangular with
rounded corners. Three holes represented the eyes and the mouth. On the
head was a high ornament, like that of the preceding figure. The arms
were hanging, of the same thickness with the shoulders. One short and
thick leg with a pointed foot. The length of the figure was 92 cm.; its
breadth across the shoulders was 26 cm.


_e_

Pl. 37.

A spirally wound line running out into some irregular curves, the last
part quite straight. The diameter of the spiral was 20 cm.


_f_

Pl. 38.

A human figure; the face in profile, high and narrow, with pointed
nose and thick, round chin. The eye was a pretty large, oval cavity.
Above the head were three plumes, broadening towards the end. Opposite
to the face was placed a figure possibly meant to represent the head
of an animal, its eye marked by an oval cavity. The neck of the human
figure was represented by a rectangle; the body appeared in profile,
the breast was convex, the back slightly concave. The arms and legs
were represented «en face», the left arm in two parts, the right one in
one; the left hand with two fingers, the right one with six. The legs
were short, curved; the feet indicated by two ovals. Between the legs a
second face was sculptured; the eyes were two small cavities, the nose
was a long furrow broader downwards, the mouth a furrow broader in the
middle. The length of the figure from the top of the head to the lower
edge of the foot was 161 cm.; the breadth across the shoulders 55 cm.


_g_

Pl. 38.

A monkey in profile; the head circular without any traces of eye or
nose; the body convex before, straight behind; the arm raised, with
three-fingered hand, the tail projecting at a right angle, its end
spirally wound; the leg bent, with two feet, and the sexual organ
behind. The length from the top of the head to the lower foot was 80 cm.


_h_

Pl. 38.

A monkey, very similar to the preceding, with larger and more convex
body; the arm with three indistinct fingers, the legs very short. The
length was 63 cm.


_i_

Pl. 38.

A cross, or rather three crosses within one another, the outermost
carved with coarser lines than the inner ones. The height of the
innermost cross was 15 cm., of the second 22 cm., and of the third or
uttermost 38 cm.


_k_

Pl. 39.

Two crosses within each other, encircled by a curved line, forming an
angle at every one of the corners of the outer cross. The lines of the
inner cross were nearly six cm. broad. At the upper and lower ends of
the outer cross was an isolated rectangular elevation, and a more or
less square one in each of the angles of the cross. The length of the
inner cross was 16 cm., of the outer one, 28 cm. The greatest diameter
of the surrounding curved figure was 48 cm.

All the above described rock-carvings, viz. _a-k_, were to be found on
the level summit of Cerro de Pantheon; _k_ was situated almost at the
centre of the plateau, its upper short arm pointing exactly northwards.
This circumstance may perhaps be fortuitous; nevertheless it ought to
be mentioned, because the arms of _i_ are also directed towards the
four principal points of the compass. Pretty near _a_ was the beginning
of a small round water-worn rock-hollow, 30 cm. in diameter.


_l_

Pl. 39.

A winding line, one end of which formed a not quite regular spiral, and
the middle portion several irregular flexions and angles, the other
extremity being perfectly straight. This winding line was cut in the
solid rock at the promontory Punta de Pantheon.


_m_

Pl. 39.

A double figure consisting of a labyrinth-shaped carving, united with
a spirally wound line, the outer circumference of which was formed by
almost square tongues, and the inner part by an irregular spiral. The
length of the labyrinth-shaped figure was 58 cm., the greatest diameter
of the spiral figure 54 cm. It was sculptured in the solid rock near
the preceding figure, at the extremity of the promontory, and was now
partly covered by water.


_n_

Pl. 39.

Almost identical in form with the spiral figure of the preceding
carving, but more regular. The inner spiral had more turnings, four in
number. The greatest diameter, if the projections are included, was 86
cm. It was also cut in the solid rock at the promontory itself, near
the line of water.


_o_

Pl. 40.

A queerly composed figure. The greatest length was 109 cm. It was found
some little way from the shore at Punta de Pantheon, cut in the solid
rock.


_p_

Pl. 40.

Some coarsely carved faces; only one had the nose marked, the other
four exhibiting only eyes and mouth. The length of the largest face
was 25 cm., of the smallest 20 cm. A little spherical excavation, a
rock-hollow, was to be seen between two of the faces. They were carved
in a loose block of stone, about two meters in diameter, lying a little
way up from the shore.

[Illustration]




IV

CERAMIC OBJECTS FROM OMETEPEC, ZAPATERA and CEIBA.


    1. Pl. 33. Human figure of terra cotta; painted with a
       blackish colour; still well preserved. Height 72 mm.
       _Ceiba._

    2. Pl. 33. Human figure, sitting, with the arms against
       the hips; of terra cotta; painted with brown-red and
       black colours on a light yellow ground. Height 144
       mm. _Ometepec_, stat. 4.

    3. Pl. 33. Headless figure, resembling the preceding;
       terra cotta; painted only in two colours, light
       yellow and brown-red. Height from the shoulders 90
       mm. _Zapatera_, Punta del Sapote, from the mound 1.

    4. Pl. 33. Spherical urn with raised ornaments and
       perforated lid; very finely painted, brown-red with
       black and light yellow. Diameter 127 mm.; height 83
       mm. _Ometepec_, stat. 5.

    5. Pl. 33. Open cup or bowl of thick terra cotta,
       minutely painted with fine ornaments; ground colour
       a light yellow, painted with red, red-brown and
       black. Diameter 70 mm.; height 40 mm. _Ometepec_,
       stat. 1.

    6. Pl. 33. Open flat cup or bowl on a foot, with
       handles; of thick, fine and smooth earthen-ware,
       painted dark brown. Diameter 75 mm., height 40 mm.
       _Ceiba._

    7. Pl. 33. Spherical urn with ears; of half-burnt clay.
       Diameter 65 mm. _Zapatera_, Punta del Sapote, from
       the mound 6.

    8. Pl. 33. High cover for a little spherical urn;
       painted brown; fine burnt clay. Diameter 48 mm.
       _Zapatera_, Punta del Sapote, from the mound 3.

    9. Pl. 34. High vase of thick earthen-ware. It has been
       painted brown-red. Elegantly adorned with small knobs
       of clay attached to the surface. It was broken in many
       pieces, but most of the fragments were recovered,
       so that it could be restored. It is distinguished by
       its graceful form. Height 420 mm.; diameter at the
       base 150 mm.; upper diameter 300 mm. Thickness of the
       material 8-10 mm. _Zapatera_, Punta del Sapote,
       the mound 3.

    10. Pl. 34. Fragment of a vase of the same form as
        the preceding. Thickness of the material 9-10 mm.
        _Zapatera_, Punta del Sapote, the mound 3.

    11. Pl. 34. Fragment of a vase, probably of the same
        form as 9. Thickness of the material 9-13 mm.
        _Zapatera_, Punta del Sapote, the mound 1.

    12. Pl. 34. Handle of a shallow bowl; of burnt clay.
        It represents the nose of an animal of prey. It
        has been painted, but the colour has been almost
        completely worn off. _Zapatera_, Punta de las
        Figuras.

    13. Pl. 34. Head of an animal, has served as handle for
        a cup; of fine burnt clay; painted black. _Ceiba._

    14. Pl. 34. Head of an animal, handle of a larger
        bowl; terra cotta; painted in a light brown colour.
        _Zapatera_, Punta del Sapote.

    15. Pl. 34. Head of an animal, handle of an arched bowl
        with its upper edge turned outwards; fine terra
        cotta; painted with red and yellow. _Zapatera_,
        Punta del Sapote.

    16. Pl. 34. Head of an animal, ornament for a can; fine
        terra cotta; painted with red and yellow bands.
        _Ometepec_, stat. 4.

    17. Pl. 34. Head of an animal, handle of a plate; fine
        terra cotta; painted black. _Zapatera_, Punta del
        Sapote.

    18. Pl. 35. Lid of an oval cup, perforated; fine terra
        cotta; painted in a red-brown colour. _Zapatera_,
        Punta del Sapote.

    19. Pl. 35. Fragment of the side of a larger bowl or
        tinacca, with a figure in relief, representing a
        monkey’s arm; terra cotta; painted with a red-brown
        colour. _Zapatera_, Punta del Sapote.

    20. Pl. 35. Small bottle with round bottom; terra
        cotta; painted yellow. _Zapatera_, Punta de las
        Figuras.

    21. Pl. 35. Head of a bird, serving as foot of a large
        plate; terra cotta; painted red. _Zapatera_, Punta
        del Sapote, the mound 6.

    22. Pl. 35. Upper part of a bottle or urn, forming
        the head of an animal, with open jaws. The bottle
        has had two entrances. Terra cotta; painted in a
        yellowish grey colour. _Zapatera_, Punta del Sapote.

    23. Pl. 35. Head of an animal, handle of a large bowl;
        terra cotta; painted red. _Zapatera_, Punta del
        Sapote.

    29. Pl. 36. Fragment of an urn with upright edge and
        angular ornaments. _Zapatera_, Punta del Sapote, the
        mound 5.

    30. Pl. 36. Head of an animal, handle of a large plate;
        fine terra cotta; painted deep brown. _Zapatera_,
        Punta del Sapote, the mound 3.

    31. Pl. 36. Head of a lizard, fragment of a toy; terra
        cotta; painted in a light yellow colour. _Zapatera_,
        Punta de las Figuras.

    32. Pl. 36. Head of an animal, handle of a plate;
        terra cotta; painted, but the colour has vanished.
        _Zapatera_, Punta de las Figuras.

    33. Pl. 36. Head of an animal, handle of a plate; fine
        terra cotta; painted black. _Ceiba._

    34. Pl. 36. Head of an animal, fragment of a toy; terra
        cotta; painted in a light yellow colour. _Zapatera_,
        Punta de las Figuras.

    35. Pl. 36. Head of an animal, handle or foot of a
        plate; terra cotta; painted brown. _Zapatera_, Punta
        de las Figuras.

    36. Pl. 36. Handle of a larger cup, or tinacca, in the
        form of a column embraced by a hand. Red clay; not
        painted. _Zapatera_, Punta del Sapote, the mound 6.

    37. Pl. 36. Small low cup with an ear; fine clay;
        painted dark brown. _Ceiba._




APPENDIX

Smaller objects of stone


    24. Pl. 35. Head of an animal, well cut. It seems to
        have formed part of the side of a stone vase or can.
        _Zapatera_, Punta del Sapote.

    25. Pl. 35. File or rasp. _Zapatera_, Punta del Sapote,
        the mound 3.

    26. Pl. 35. Molidor or pestle for pounding seed.
        _Ometepec_, stat. 3.

    27. Pl. 35. Chisel. _Zapatera_, Punta del Sapote, the
        mound 3.

    28. Pl. 35. Chisel. _Ceiba._

[Illustration]




CONTENTS.


                                                         Pag.
    Introduction                                           1.
    Statues in _Punta del Sapote_                    13.
    Statues in _Punta de las Figuras_                33.
    Rock-carvings in the island of _Ceiba_           42.
    Ceramic objects from _Ometepec_, _Zapatera_
           and _Ceiba_                               48.
    Appendix: Smaller objects of stone                    50.

[Illustration]

[Illustration: _Pl. 1._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 2._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 3._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 4._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 5._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 6._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 7._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 8._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 9._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 10._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 11._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 12._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 13._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 14._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 15._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 16._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 17._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 18._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 19._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 20._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 21._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 22._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 23._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 24._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 25._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 26._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 27._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 28._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 29._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 30._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 31._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 32._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 33._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 34._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 35._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 36._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 37._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 38._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 39._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 40._]

[Illustration: _Pl. 41._

_Punta del Sapote._

_Punta de las figuras._]

[Illustration]

[Illustration: MAP of NICARAGUA and COSTA RICA to illustrate the
journey of CARL BOVALLIUS 1882-1883.]

[Illustration: Sketch of a Map of The Island of Zapatera by CARL
BOVALLIUS.]

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NICARAGUAN ANTIQUITIES ***

Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the
United States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation
of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project
Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away--you may
do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected
by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark
license, especially commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works

1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the
person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph
1.E.8.

1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the
Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual
works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting
free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm
works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily
comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when
you share it without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no
representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear
prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work
on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the
phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed,
performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

  This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
  most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
  restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
  under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
  eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
  United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
  you are located before using this eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is
derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project
Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm
trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works
posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg-tm License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format
other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official
version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain
Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
provided that:

* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
  the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
  you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
  to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has
  agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
  within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
  legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
  payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
  Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
  Literary Archive Foundation."

* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
  you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
  does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
  License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
  copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
  all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm
  works.

* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
  any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
  electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
  receipt of the work.

* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
  distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than
are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm

Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
www.gutenberg.org

Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.

The Foundation's business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,
Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation's website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular
state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate

Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works

Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.