The Project Gutenberg EBook of Index of the Project Gutenberg Works of
Bertrand Russell, by Bertrand Russell

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll
have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using
this ebook.



Title: Index of the Project Gutenberg Works of Bertrand Russell

Author: Bertrand Russell

Editor: David Widger

Release Date: April 29, 2019 [EBook #59391]

Language: English

Character set encoding: UTF-8

*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INDEX OF THE PG WORKS OF RUSSELL ***




Produced by David Widger







INDEX OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG

WORKS OF

BERTRAND RUSSELL



Compiled by David Widger



RUSS



CONTENTS

Click on the ## before many of the titles to view a linked
table of contents for that volume.

Click on the title itself to open the original online file.

##  PROPOSED ROADS TO FREEDOM

##  THE ANALYSIS OF MIND

##  POLITICAL IDEALS

##  THE PROBLEMS OF PHILOSOPHY

##  THE PROBLEM OF CHINA

##  BOLSHEVISM

##  MYSTICISM AND LOGIC

##  OUR KNOWLEDGE OF EXTERNAL WORLD

FREE THOUGHT AND OFFICIAL PROPAGANDA

##  ON FOUNDATIONS OF GEOMETRY

##  WHY MEN FIGHT








TABLES OF CONTENTS OF VOLUMES






PROPOSED ROADS TO FREEDOM

By Bertrand Russell



CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION
PART I HISTORICAL
CHAPTER I MARX AND SOCIALIST DOCTRINE
CHAPTER II BAKUNIN AND ANARCHISM
CHAPTER III THE SYNDICALIST REVOLT
PART II PROBLEMS OF THE FUTURE
CHAPTER IV WORK AND PAY
CHAPTER V GOVERNMENT AND LAW
CHAPTER VI INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
CHAPTER VII SCIENCE AND ART UNDER SOCIALISM
CHAPTER VIII THE WORLD AS IT COULD BE MADE






THE ANALYSIS OF MIND

By Bertrand Russell

1921

CONTENTS

MUIRHEAD LIBRARY OF PHILOSOPHY

PREFACE

THE ANALYSIS OF MIND

LECTURE I. RECENT CRITICISMS OF "CONSCIOUSNESS"
LECTURE II. INSTINCT AND HABIT
LECTURE III. DESIRE AND FEELING
LECTURE IV. INFLUENCE OF PAST HISTORY ON PRESENT OCCURRENCES IN LIVING
LECTURE V. PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PHYSICAL CAUSAL LAWS
LECTURE VI. INTROSPECTION
LECTURE VII. THE DEFINITION OF PERCEPTION
LECTURE VIII. SENSATIONS AND IMAGES
LECTURE IX. MEMORY
LECTURE X. WORDS AND MEANING
LECTURE XI. GENERAL IDEAS AND THOUGHT
LECTURE XII. BELIEF
LECTURE XIII.     TRUTH AND FALSEHOOD
LECTURE XIV. EMOTIONS AND WILL
LECTURE XV. CHARACTERISTICS OF MENTAL PHENOMENA






POLITICAL IDEALS

By Bertrand Russell




CONTENTS

I:   Political Ideals
II:   Capitalism and the Wage System
III:   Pitfalls in Socialism
IV:   Individual Liberty and Public Control
V:   National Independence and Internationalism






THE PROBLEMS OF PHILOSOPHY

By Bertrand Russell



CONTENTS

PREFACE
CHAPTER I. APPEARANCE AND REALITY
CHAPTER II. THE EXISTENCE OF MATTER
CHAPTER III. THE NATURE OF MATTER
CHAPTER IV. IDEALISM
CHAPTER V. KNOWLEDGE BY ACQUAINTANCE AND KNOWLEDGE BY DESCRIPTION
CHAPTER VI. ON INDUCTION
CHAPTER VII. ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF GENERAL PRINCIPLES
CHAPTER VIII. HOW A PRIORI KNOWLEDGE IS POSSIBLE
CHAPTER IX. THE WORLD OF UNIVERSALS
CHAPTER X. ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF UNIVERSALS
CHAPTER XI. ON INTUITIVE KNOWLEDGE
CHAPTER XII. TRUTH AND FALSEHOOD
CHAPTER XIII.     KNOWLEDGE, ERROR, AND PROBABLE OPINION
CHAPTER XIV. THE LIMITS OF PHILOSOPHICAL KNOWLEDGE
CHAPTER XV. THE VALUE OF PHILOSOPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE






THE PROBLEM OF CHINA

By Bertrand Russell

CONTENTS

QUESTIONS
CHINA BEFORE THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
CHINA AND THE WESTERN POWERS
MODERN CHINA
JAPAN BEFORE THE RESTORATION
MODERN JAPAN
JAPAN AND CHINA BEFORE 1914
JAPAN AND CHINA DURING THE WAR
THE WASHINGTON CONFERENCE
PRESENT FORCES AND TENDENCIES IN THE FAR EAST
CHINESE AND WESTERN CIVILIZATION CONTRASTED
THE CHINESE CHARACTER
HIGHER EDUCATION IN CHINA
INDUSTRIALISM IN CHINA
THE OUTLOOK FOR CHINA
APPENDIX
INDEX






THE PRACTICE AND THEORY OF BOLSHEVISM

Bertrand Russell

CONTENTS

    PAGE
PART I
THE PRESENT CONDITION OF RUSSIA
I. WHAT IS HOPED FROM BOLSHEVISM 15
II. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS 24
III. LENIN, TROTSKY AND GORKY 36
IV. ART AND EDUCATION 45
V. COMMUNISM AND THE SOVIET CONSTITUTION 72
VI. THE FAILURE OF RUSSIAN INDUSTRY 81
VII. DAILY LIFE IN MOSCOW 92
VIII. TOWN AND COUNTRY 99
IX. INTERNATIONAL POLICY 106
PART II
BOLSHEVIK THEORY
I. THE MATERIALISTIC THEORY OF HISTORY 119
II. DECIDING FORCES IN POLITICS 128
III. BOLSHEVIK CRITICISM OF DEMOCRACY 134
IV. REVOLUTION AND DICTATORSHIP 146
V. MECHANISM AND THE INDIVIDUAL 157
VI. WHY RUSSIAN COMMUNISM HAS FAILED 165
VII. CONDITIONS FOR THE SUCCESS OF COMMUNISM 178






MYSTICISM AND LOGIC

AND OTHER ESSAYS

Bertrand Russell

CONTENTS

Chapter   Page
I. Mysticism and Logic 1
II. The Place of Science in a Liberal Education 33
III. A Free Man's Worship 46
IV. The Study of Mathematics 58
V. Mathematics and the Metaphysicians 74
VI. On Scientific Method in Philosophy 97
VII. The Ultimate Constituents of Matter 125
VIII. The Relation of Sense-data to Physics 145
IX. On the Notion of Cause 180
X. Knowledge by Acquaintance and Knowledge by Description 209
  Index 233






OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE EXTERNAL WORLD
AS A FIELD FOR SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN PHILOSOPHY,

By Bertrand Russell

CONTENTS

LECTURE PAGE
I. Current Tendencies 3
II. Logic as the Essence of Philosophy 33
III. On our Knowledge of the External World 63
IV. The World of Physics and the World of Sense 101
V. The Theory of Continuity 129
VI. The Problem of Infinity considered Historically 155
VII. The Positive Theory of Infinity 185
VIII. On the Notion of Cause, with Applications to the Free-will Problem 211
  Index 243

INDEX

Absolute, 6, 39.
Abstraction, principle of, 42, 124 ff.
Achilles, Zeno's argument of, 173.
Acquaintance, 25, 144.
Activity, 224 ff.
Allman, 161 n.
Analysis, 185, 204, 211, 241.
legitimacy of, 150.
Anaximander, 3.
Antinomies, Kant's, 155 ff.
Aquinas, 10.
Aristotle, 40, 160 n., 161 ff., 240.
Arrow, Zeno's argument of, 173.
Assertion, 52.
Atomism, logical, 4.
Atomists, 160.
Belief, 58.
primitive and derivative, 69 ff.
Bergson, 4, 11, 13, 20 ff., 137, 138, 150, 158, 165, 174, 178, 229 ff.
Berkeley, 63, 64, 102.
Bolzano, 165.
Boole, 40.
Bradley, 6, 39, 165.
Broad, 172 n.
Brochard, 169 n.
Burnet, 19 n., 160 n., 161 n., 170 n., 171 ff.
Calderon, 95.
Cantor, vi, vii, 155, 165, 190, 194, 199.
Categories, 38.
Causal laws, 109, 212 ff.
evidence for, 216 ff.
in psychology, 219.
Causation, 34 ff., 79, 212 ff.
law of, 221.
not a priori, 223, 232.
Cause, 220, 223.
Certainty, degrees of, 67, 68, 212.
Change,
demands analysis, 151.
Cinematograph, 148, 174.
Classes, 202.
non-existence of, 205 ff.
Classical tradition, 3 ff., 58.
Complexity, 145, 157 ff.
Compulsion, 229, 233 ff.
Congruence, 195.
Consecutiveness, 134.
Conservation, 105.
Constituents of facts, 51, 145.
Construction v. inference, iv.
Contemporaries, initial, 119, 120 n.
Continuity, 64, 129 ff., 141 ff., 155 ff.
of change, 106, 108, 130 ff.
Correlation of mental and physical, 233.
Counting, 164, 181, 187 ff., 203.
Couturat, 40 n.
Dante, 10.
Darwin, 4, 11, 23, 30.
Data, 65 ff., 211.
“hard” and “soft,” 70 ff.
Dates, 117.
Definition, 204.
Descartes, 5, 73, 238.
Descriptions, 201, 214.
Desire, 227, 235.
Determinism, 233.
Doubt, 237.
Dreams, 85, 93.
Duration, 146, 149.
Earlier and later, 116.
Effect, 220.
Eleatics, 19.
Empiricism, 37, 222.
Enclosure, 114 ff., 120.
Enumeration, 202.
Euclid, 160, 164.
Evellin, 169.
Evolutionism, 4, 11 ff.
Extension, 146, 149.
External world, knowledge of, 63 ff.
Fact, 51.
atomic, 52.
Finalism, 13.
Form, logical, 42 ff., 185, 208.
Fractions, 132, 179.
Free will, 213, 227 ff.
Frege, 5, 40, 199 ff.
Galileo, 4, 59, 192, 194, 239, 240.
Gaye, 169 n., 175, 177.
Geometry, 5.
Giles, 206 n.
Greater and less, 195.
Harvard, 4.
Hegel, 3, 37 ff., 46, 166.
“Here,” 73, 92.
Hereditary properties, 195.
Hippasos, 163, 237.
Hui Tzu, 206.
Hume, 217, 221.
Hypotheses in philosophy, 239.
Illusions, 85.
Incommensurables, 162 ff., 237.
Independence, 73, 74.
causal and logical, 74, 75.
Indiscernibility, 141, 148.
Indivisibles, 160.
Induction, 34, 222.
mathematical, 195 ff.
Inductiveness, 190, 195 ff.
Inference, 44, 54.
Infinite, vi, 64, 133, 149.
historically considered, 155 ff.
“true,” 179, 180.
positive theory of, 185 ff.
Infinitesimals, 135.
Instants, 116 ff., 129, 151, 216.
defined, 118.
Instinct v. Reason, 20 ff.
Intellect, 22 ff.
Intelligence, how displayed by friends, 93.
inadequacy of display, 96.
Interpretation, 144.
James, 4, 10, 13.
Jourdain, 165 n.
Jowett, 167.
Judgment, 58.
Kant, 3, 112, 116, 155 ff., 200.
Knowledge about, 144.
Language, bad, 82, 135.
Laplace, 12.
Laws of nature, 218 ff.
Leibniz, 13, 40, 87, 186, 191.
Logic, 201.
analytic not constructive, 8.
Aristotelian, 5.
and fact, 53.
inductive, 34, 222.
mathematical, vi, 40 ff.
mystical, 46.
and philosophy, 8, 33 ff., 239.
Logical constants, 208, 213.
Mach, 123, 224.
Macran, 39 n.
Mathematics, 40, 57.
Matter, 75, 101 ff.
permanence of, 102 ff.
Measurement, 164.
Memory, 230, 234, 236.
Method, deductive, 5.
logical-analytic, v, 65, 211, 236 ff.
Milhaud, 168 n., 169 n.
Mill, 34, 200.
Montaigne, 28.
Motion, 130, 216.
continuous, 133, 136.
mathematical theory of, 133.
perception of, 137 ff.
Zeno's arguments on, 168 ff.
Mysticism, 19, 46, 63, 95.
Newton, 30, 146.
Nietzsche, 10, 11.
Noël, 169.
Number, cardinal, 131, 186 ff.
defined, 199 ff.
finite, 160, 190 ff.
inductive, 197.
infinite, 178, 180, 188 ff., 197.
reflexive, 190 ff.
Occam, 107, 146.
One and many, 167, 170.
Order, 131.
Parmenides, 63, 165 ff., 178.
Past and future, 224, 234 ff.
Peano, 40.
Perspectives, 88 ff., 111.
Philoponus, 171 n.
Philosophy and ethics, 26 ff.
and mathematics, 185 ff.
province of, 17, 26, 185, 236.
scientific, 11, 16, 18, 29, 236 ff.
Physics, 101 ff., 147, 239, 242.
descriptive, 224.
verifiability of, 81, 110.
Place, 86, 90.
at and from, 92.
Plato, 4, 19, 27, 46, 63, 165 n., 166, 167.
Poincaré, 123, 141.
Points, 113 ff., 129, 158.
definition of, vi, 115.
Pragmatism, 11.
Prantl, 174.
Predictability, 229 ff.
Premisses, 211.
Probability, 36.
Propositions, 52.
atomic, 52.
general, 55.
molecular, 54.
Pythagoras, 19, 160 ff., 237.
Race-course, Zeno's argument of, 171 ff.
Realism, new, 6.
Reflexiveness, 190 ff.
Relations, 45.
asymmetrical, 47.
Bradley's reasons against, 6.
external, 150.
intransitive, 48.
multiple, 50.
one-one, 203.
reality of, 49.
symmetrical, 47, 124.
transitive, 48, 124.
Relativity, 103, 242.
Repetitions, 230 ff.
Rest, 136.
Ritter and Preller, 161 n.
Robertson, D. S., 160 n.
Rousseau, 20.
Royce, 50.
Santayana, 46.
Scepticism, 66, 67.
Seeing double, 86.
Self, 73.
Sensation, 25, 75, 123.
and stimulus, 139.
Sense-data, 56, 63, 67, 75, 110, 141, 143, 213.
and physics, v, 64, 81, 97, 101 ff., 140.
infinitely numerous? 149, 159.
Sense-perception, 53.
Series, 49.
compact, 132, 142, 178.
continuous, 131, 132.
Sigwart, 187.
Simplicius, 170 n.
Simultaneity, 116.
Space, 73, 88, 103, 112 ff., 130.
absolute and relative, 146, 159.
antinomies of, 155 ff.
perception of, 68.
of perspectives, 88 ff.
private, 89, 90.
of touch and sight, 78, 113.
Spencer, 4, 12, 236.
Spinoza, 46, 166.
Stadium, Zeno's argument of, 134 n., 175 ff.
Subject-predicate, 45.
Synthesis, 157, 185.
Tannery, Paul, 169 n.
Teleology, 223.
Testimony, 67, 72, 82, 87, 96, 212.
Thales, 3.
Thing-in-itself, 75, 84.
Things, 89 ff., 104 ff., 213.
Time, 103, 116 ff., 130, 155 ff., 166, 215.
absolute or relative, 146.
local, 103.
private, 121.
Uniformities, 217.
Unity, organic, 9.
Universal and particular, 39 n.
Volition, 223 ff.
Whitehead, vi, 207.
Wittgenstein, vii, 208 n.
Worlds, actual and ideal, 111.
possible, 186.
private, 88.
Zeller, 173.
Zeno, 129, 134, 136, 165 ff.
[1] Delivered as Lowell Lectures in Boston, in March and April 1914.
[2] London and New York, 1912 (“Home University Library”).
[3] The first volume was published at Cambridge in 1910, the second in 1912, and the third in 1913.
[4] Appearance and Reality, pp. 32–33.
[5] Creative Evolution, English translation, p. 41.
[6] Cf. Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy, pp. 85 ff.
[7] Introduction to Metaphysics, p. 1.
[8] Logic, book iii., chapter iii., § 2.
[9] Book iii., chapter xxi., § 3.
[10] Or rather a propositional function.
[11] The subject of causality and induction will be discussed again in Lecture VIII.
[12] See the translation by H. S. Macran, Hegel's Doctrine of Formal Logic, Oxford, 1912. Hegel's argument in this portion of his “Logic” depends throughout upon confusing the “is” of predication, as in “Socrates is mortal,” with the “is” of identity, as in “Socrates is the philosopher who drank the hemlock.” Owing to this confusion, he thinks that “Socrates” and “mortal” must be identical. Seeing that they are different, he does not infer, as others would, that there is a mistake somewhere, but that they exhibit “identity in difference.” Again, Socrates is particular, “mortal” is universal. Therefore, he says, since Socrates is mortal, it follows that the particular is the universal—taking the “is” to be throughout expressive of identity. But to say “the particular is the universal” is self-contradictory. Again Hegel does not suspect a mistake but proceeds to synthesise particular and universal in the individual, or concrete universal. This is an example of how, for want of care at the start, vast and imposing systems of philosophy are built upon stupid and trivial confusions, which, but for the almost incredible fact that they are unintentional, one would be tempted to characterise as puns.
[13] Cf. Couturat, La Logique de Leibniz, pp. 361, 386.
[14] It was often recognised that there was some difference between them, but it was not recognised that the difference is fundamental, and of very great importance.
[15] Encyclopædia of the Philosophical Sciences, vol. i. p. 97.
[16] This perhaps requires modification in order to include such facts as beliefs and wishes, since such facts apparently contain propositions as components. Such facts, though not strictly atomic, must be supposed included if the statement in the text is to be true.
[17] The assumptions made concerning time-relations in the above are as follows:—
[18] The above paradox is essentially the same as Zeno's argument of the stadium which will be considered in our next lecture.
[19] See next lecture.
[20] Monist, July 1912, pp. 337–341.
[21] “Le continu mathématique,” Revue de Métaphysique et de Morale, vol. i. p. 29.
[22] In what concerns the early Greek philosophers, my knowledge is largely derived from Burnet's valuable work, Early Greek Philosophy (2nd ed., London, 1908). I have also been greatly assisted by Mr D. S. Robertson of Trinity College, who has supplied the deficiencies of my knowledge of Greek, and brought important references to my notice.
[23] Cf. Aristotle, Metaphysics, M. 6, 1080b, 18 sqq., and 1083b, 8 sqq.
[24] There is some reason to think that the Pythagoreans distinguished between discrete and continuous quantity. G. J. Allman, in his Greek Geometry from Thales to Euclid, says (p. 23): “The Pythagoreans made a fourfold division of mathematical science, attributing one of its parts to the how many, t? p?s??, and the other to the how much, t? p??????; and they assigned to each of these parts a twofold division. For they said that discrete quantity, or the how many, either subsists by itself or must be considered with relation to some other; but that continued quantity, or the how much, is either stable or in motion. Hence they affirmed that arithmetic contemplates that discrete quantity which subsists by itself, but music that which is related to another; and that geometry considers continued quantity so far as it is immovable; but astronomy (t?? sfa??????) contemplates continued quantity so far as it is of a self-motive nature. (Proclus, ed. Friedlein, p. 35. As to the distinction between t? p??????, continuous, and t? p?s??, discrete quantity, see Iambl., in Nicomachi Geraseni Arithmeticam introductionem, ed. Tennulius, p. 148.)” Cf. p. 48.
[25] Referred to by Burnet, op. cit., p. 120.
[26] iv., 6. 213b, 22; H. Ritter and L. Preller, Historia Philosophiæ Græcæ, 8th ed., Gotha, 1898, p. 75 (this work will be referred to in future as “R. P.”).
[27] The Pythagorean proof is roughly as follows. If possible, let the ratio of the diagonal to the side of a square be m/n, where m and n are whole numbers having no common factor. Then we must have m2 = 2n2. Now the square of an odd number is odd, but m2, being equal to 2n2, is even. Hence m must be even. But the square of an even number divides by 4, therefore n2, which is half of m2, must be even. Therefore n must be even. But, since m is even, and m and n have no common factor, n must be odd. Thus n must be both odd and even, which is impossible; and therefore the diagonal and the side cannot have a rational ratio.
[28] In regard to Zeno and the Pythagoreans, I have derived much valuable information and criticism from Mr P. E. B. Jourdain.
[29] So Plato makes Zeno say in the Parmenides, apropos of his philosophy as a whole; and all internal and external evidence supports this view.
[30] “With Parmenides,” Hegel says, “philosophising proper began.” Werke (edition of 1840), vol. xiii. p. 274.
[31] Parmenides, 128 AD.
[32] This interpretation is combated by Milhaud, Les philosophes-géomètres de la Grèce, p. 140 n., but his reasons do not seem to me convincing. All the interpretations in what follows are open to question, but all have the support of reputable authorities.
[33] Physics, vi. 9. 2396 (R.P. 136–139).
[34] Cf. Gaston Milhaud, Les philosophes-géomètres de la Grèce, p. 140 n.; Paul Tannery, Pour l'histoire de la science hellène, p. 249; Burnet, op. cit., p. 362.
[35] Cf. R. K. Gaye, “On Aristotle, Physics, Z ix.” Journal of Philology, vol. xxxi., esp. p. 111. Also Moritz Cantor, Vorlesungen über Geschichte der Mathematik, 1st ed., vol. i., 1880, p. 168, who, however, subsequently adopted Paul Tannery's opinion, Vorlesungen, 3rd ed. (vol. i. p. 200).
[36] “Le mouvement et les partisans des indivisibles,” Revue de Métaphysique et de Morale, vol. i. pp. 382–395.
[37] “Le mouvement et les arguments de Zénon d'Élée,” Revue de Métaphysique et de Morale, vol. i. pp. 107–125.
[38] Cf. M. Brochard, “Les prétendus sophismes de Zénon d'Élée,” Revue de Métaphysique et de Morale, vol. i. pp. 209–215.
[39] Simplicius, Phys., 140, 28 D (R.P. 133); Burnet, op. cit., pp. 364–365.
[40] Op. cit., p. 367.
[41] Aristotle's words are: “The first is the one on the non-existence of motion on the ground that what is moved must always attain the middle point sooner than the end-point, on which we gave our opinion in the earlier part of our discourse.” Phys., vi. 9. 939B (R.P. 136). Aristotle seems to refer to Phys., vi. 2. 223AB [R.P. 136A]: “All space is continuous, for time and space are divided into the same and equal divisions…. Wherefore also Zeno's argument is fallacious, that it is impossible to go through an infinite collection or to touch an infinite collection one by one in a finite time. For there are two senses in which the term ‘infinite’ is applied both to length and to time, and in fact to all continuous things, either in regard to divisibility, or in regard to the ends. Now it is not possible to touch things infinite in regard to number in a finite time, but it is possible to touch things infinite in regard to divisibility: for time itself also is infinite in this sense. So that in fact we go through an infinite, [space] in an infinite [time] and not in a finite [time], and we touch infinite things with infinite things, not with finite things.” Philoponus, a sixth-century commentator (R.P. 136A, Exc. Paris Philop. in Arist. Phys., 803, 2. Vit.), gives the following illustration: “For if a thing were moved the space of a cubit in one hour, since in every space there are an infinite number of points, the thing moved must needs touch all the points of the space: it will then go through an infinite collection in a finite time, which is impossible.”
[42] Cf. Mr C. D. Broad, “Note on Achilles and the Tortoise,” Mind, N.S., vol. xxii. pp. 318–9.
[43] Op. cit.
[44] Aristotle's words are: “The second is the so-called Achilles. It consists in this, that the slower will never be overtaken in its course by the quickest, for the pursuer must always come first to the point from which the pursued has just departed, so that the slower must necessarily be always still more or less in advance.” Phys., vi. 9. 239B (R.P. 137).
[45] Phys., vi. 9. 239B (R.P. 138).
[46] Phys., vi. 9. 239B (R.P. 139).
[47] Loc. cit.
[48] Loc. cit., p. 105.
[49] Phil. Werke, Gerhardt's edition, vol. i. p. 338.
[50] Mathematical Discourses concerning two new sciences relating to mechanics and local motion, in four dialogues. By Galileo Galilei, Chief Philosopher and Mathematician to the Grand Duke of Tuscany. Done into English from the Italian, by Tho. Weston, late Master, and now published by John Weston, present Master, of the Academy at Greenwich. See pp. 46 ff.
[51] In his Grundlagen einer allgemeinen Mannichfaltigkeitslehre and in articles in Acta Mathematica, vol. ii.
[52] The definition of number contained in this book, and elaborated in the Grundgesetze der Arithmetik (vol. i., 1893; vol. ii., 1903), was rediscovered by me in ignorance of Frege's work. I wish to state as emphatically as possible—what seems still often ignored—that his discovery antedated mine by eighteen years.
[53] Giles, The Civilisation of China (Home University Library), p. 147.
[54] Cf. Principia Mathematica, § 20, and Introduction, chapter iii.
[55] In the above remarks I am making use of unpublished work by my friend Ludwig Wittgenstein.
[56] Thus we are not using “thing” here in the sense of a class of correlated “aspects,” as we did in Lecture III. Each “aspect” will count separately in stating causal laws.
[57] The above remarks, for purposes of illustration, adopt one of several possible opinions on each of several disputed points.






AN ESSAY ON THE FOUNDATIONS OF GEOMETRY

By Bertrand A. W. Russell

Fellow Of Trinity College, Cambridge

1897

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION.
OUR PROBLEM DEFINED BY ITS RELATIONS TO LOGIC, PSYCHOLOGY AND MATHEMATICS.
PAGE
1. The problem first received a modern form through Kant, who connected the à priori with the subjective 1
2. A mental state is subjective, for Psychology, when its immediate cause does not lie in the outer world 2
3. A piece of knowledge is à priori, for Epistemology, when without it knowledge would be impossible 2
4. The subjective and the à priori belong respectively to Psychology and to Epistemology. The latter alone will be investigated in this essay 3
5. My test of the à priori will be purely logical: what knowledge is necessary for experience? 3
6. But since the necessary is hypothetical, we must include, in the à priori, the ground of necessity 4
7. This may be the essential postulate of our science, or the element, in the subject-matter, which is necessary to experience; 4
8. Which, however, are both at bottom the same ground 5
9. Forecast of the work 5
 
CHAPTER I.
A SHORT HISTORY OF METAGEOMETRY.
10. Metageometry began by rejecting the axiom of parallels 7
11. Its history may be divided into three periods: the synthetic, the metrical and the projective 7
12. The first period was inaugurated by Gauss, 10
[viii] 13. Whose suggestions were developed independently by Lobatchewsky 10
14. And Bolyai 11
15. The purpose of all three was to show that the axiom of parallels could not be deduced from the others, since its denial did not lead to contradictions 12
16. The second period had a more philosophical aim, and was inspired chiefly by Gauss and Herbart 13
17. The first work of this period, that of Riemann, invented two new conceptions: 14
18. The first, that of a manifold, is a class-conception, containing space as a species, 14
19. And defined as such that its determinations form a collection of magnitudes 15
20. The second, the measure of curvature of a manifold, grew out of curvature in curves and surfaces 16
21. By means of Gauss's analytical formula for the curvature of surfaces, 19
22. Which enables us to define a constant measure of curvature of a three-dimensional space without reference to a fourth dimension 20
23. The main result of Riemann's mathematical work was to show that, if magnitudes are independent of place, the measure of curvature of space must be constant 21
24. Helmholtz, who was more of a philosopher than a mathematician, 22
25. Gave a new but incorrect formulation of the essential axioms, 23
26. And deduced the quadratic formula for the infinitesimal arc, which Riemann had assumed 24
27. Beltrami gave Lobatchewsky's planimetry a Euclidean interpretation, 25
28. Which is analogous to Cayley's theory of distance; 26
29. And dealt with n-dimensional spaces of constant negative curvature 27
30. The third period abandons the metrical methods of the second, and extrudes the notion of spatial quantity 27
31. Cayley reduced metrical properties to projective properties, relative to a certain conic or quadric, the Absolute; 28
32. And Klein showed that the Euclidean or non-Euclidean systems result, according to the nature of the Absolute; 29
33. Hence Euclidean space appeared to give rise to all the kinds of Geometry, and the question, which is true, appeared reduced to one of convention 30
34. But this view is due to a confusion as to the nature of the coordinates employed 30
[ix] 35. Projective coordinates have been regarded as dependent on distance, and thus really metrical 31
36. But this is not the case, since anharmonic ratio can be projectively defined 32
37. Projective coordinates, being purely descriptive, can give no information as to metrical properties, and the reduction of metrical to projective properties is purely technical 33
38. The true connection of Cayley's measure of distance with non-Euclidean Geometry is that suggested by Beltrami's Saggio, and worked out by Sir R. Ball, 36
39. Which provides a Euclidean equivalent for every non-Euclidean proposition, and so removes the possibility of contradictions in Metageometry 38
40. Klein's elliptic Geometry has not been proved to have a corresponding variety of space 39
41. The geometrical use of imaginaries, of which Cayley demanded a philosophical discussion, 41
42. Has a merely technical validity, 42
43. And is capable of giving geometrical results only when it begins and ends with real points and figures 45
44. We have now seen that projective Geometry is logically prior to metrical Geometry, but cannot supersede it 46
45. Sophus Lie has applied projective methods to Helmholtz's formulation of the axioms, and has shown the axiom of Monodromy to be superfluous 46
46. Metageometry has gradually grown independent of philosophy, but has grown continually more interesting to philosophy 50
47. Metrical Geometry has three indispensable axioms, 50
48. Which we shall find to be not results, but conditions, of measurement, 51
49. And which are nearly equivalent to the three axioms of projective Geometry 52
50. Both sets of axioms are necessitated, not by facts, but by logic 52
 
CHAPTER II.
CRITICAL ACCOUNT OF SOME PREVIOUS PHILOSOPHICAL THEORIES OF GEOMETRY.
51. A criticism of representative modern theories need not begin before Kant 54
52. Kant's doctrine must be taken, in an argument about Geometry, on its purely logical side 55
[x] 53. Kant contends that since Geometry is apodeictic, space must be à priori and subjective, while since space is à priori and subjective, Geometry must be apodeictic 55
54. Metageometry has upset the first line of argument, not the second 56
55. The second may be attacked by criticizing either the distinction of synthetic and analytic judgments, or the first two arguments of the metaphysical deduction of space 57
56. Modern Logic regards every judgment as both synthetic and analytic, 57
57. But leaves the à priori, as that which is presupposed in the possibility of experience 59
58. Kant's first two arguments as to space suffice to prove some form of externality, but not necessarily Euclidean space, a necessary condition of experience 60
59. Among the successors of Kant, Herbart alone advanced the theory of Geometry, by influencing Riemann 62
60. Riemann regarded space as a particular kind of manifold, i.e. wholly quantitatively 63
61. He therefore unduly neglected the qualitative adjectives of space 64
62. His philosophy rests on a vicious disjunction 65
63. His definition of a manifold is obscure, 66
64. And his definition of measurement applies only to space 67
65. Though mathematically invaluable, his view of space as a manifold is philosophically misleading 69
66. Helmholtz attacked Kant both on the mathematical and on the psychological side; 70
67. But his criterion of apriority is changeable and often invalid; 71
68. His proof that non-Euclidean spaces are imaginable is inconclusive; 72
69. And his assertion of the dependence of measurement on rigid bodies, which may be taken in three senses, 74
70. Is wholly false if it means that the axiom of Congruence actually asserts the existence of rigid bodies, 75
71. Is untrue if it means that the necessary reference of geometrical propositions to matter renders pure Geometry empirical, 76
72. And is inadequate to his conclusion if it means, what is true, that actual measurement involves approximately rigid bodies 78
73. Geometry deals with an abstract matter, whose physical properties are disregarded; and Physics must presuppose Geometry 80
74. Erdmann accepted the conclusions of Riemann and Helmholtz, 81
[xi] 75. And regarded the axioms as necessarily successive steps in classifying space as a species of manifold 82
76. His deduction involves four fallacious assumptions, namely: 82
77. That conceptions must be abstracted from a series of instances; 83
78. That all definition is classification; 83
79. That conceptions of magnitude can be applied to space as a whole; 84
80. And that if conceptions of magnitude could be so applied, all the adjectives of space would result from their application 86
81. Erdmann regards Geometry alone as incapable of deciding on the truth of the axiom of Congruence, 86
82. Which he affirms to be empirically proved by Mechanics. 88
83. The variety and inadequacy of Erdmann's tests of apriority 89
84. Invalidate his final conclusions on the theory of Geometry 90
85. Lotze has discussed two questions in the theory of Geometry: 93
86. (1) He regards the possibility of non-Euclidean spaces as suggested by the subjectivity of space, 93
87. And rejects it owing to a mathematical misunderstanding, 96
88. Having missed the most important sense of their possibility, 96
89. Which is that they fulfil the logical conditions to which any form of externality must conform 97
90. (2) He attacks the mathematical procedure of Metageometry 98
91. The attack begins with a question-begging definition of parallels 99
92. Lotze maintains that all apparent departures from Euclid could be physically explained, a view which really makes Euclid empirical 99
93. His criticism of Helmholtz's analogies rests wholly on mathematical mistakes 101
94. His proof that space must have three dimensions rests on neglect of different orders of infinity 104
95. He attacks non-Euclidean spaces on the mistaken ground that they are not homogeneous 107
96. Lotze's objections fall under four heads 108
97. Two other semi-philosophical objections may be urged, 109
98. One of which, the absence of similarity, has been made the basis of attack by Delbouf, 110
99. But does not form a valid ground of objection 111
100. Recent French speculation on the foundations of Geometry has suggested few new views 112
101. All homogeneous spaces are à priori possible, and the decision between them is empirical 114
 [xii]
CHAPTER III.
Section A. the axioms of projective geometry.
102. Projective Geometry does not deal with magnitude, and applies to all spaces alike 117
103. It will be found wholly à priori 117
104. Its axioms have not yet been formulated philosophically 118
105. Coordinates, in projective Geometry, are not spatial magnitudes, but convenient names for points 118
106. The possibility of distinguishing various points is an axiom 119
107. The qualitative relations between points, dealt with by projective Geometry, are presupposed by the quantitative treatment 119
108. The only qualitative relation between two points is the straight line, and all straight lines are qualitatively similar 120
109. Hence follows, by extension, the principle of projective transformation 121
110. By which figures qualitatively indistinguishable from a given figure are obtained 122
111. Anharmonic ratio may and must be descriptively defined 122
112. The quadrilateral construction is essential to the projective definition of points, 123
113. And can be projectively defined, 124
114. By the general principle of projective transformation 126
115. The principle of duality is the mathematical form of a philosophical circle, 127
116. Which is an inevitable consequence of the relativity of space, and makes any definition of the point contradictory 128
117. We define the point as that which is spatial, but contains no space, whence other definitions follow 128
118. What is meant by qualitative equivalence in Geometry? 129
119. Two pairs of points on one straight line, or two pairs of straight lines through one point, are qualitatively equivalent 129
120. This explains why four collinear points are needed, to give an intrinsic relation by which the fourth can be descriptively defined when the first three are given 130
121. Any two projectively related figures are qualitatively equivalent, i.e. differ in no non-quantitative conceptual property 131
122. Three axioms are used by projective Geometry, 132
[xiii] 123. And are required for qualitative spatial comparison, 132
124. Which involves the homogeneity, relativity and passivity of space 133
125. The conception of a form of externality, 134
126. Being a creature of the intellect, can be dealt with by pure mathematics 134
127. The resulting doctrine of extension will be, for the moment, hypothetical 135
128. But is rendered assertorical by the necessity, for experience, of some form of externality 136
129. Any such form must be relational 136
130. And homogeneous 137
131. And the relations constituting it must appear infinitely divisible 137
132. It must have a finite integral number of dimensions, 139
133. Owing to its passivity and homogeneity 140
134. And to the systematic unity of the world 140
135. A one-dimensional form alone would not suffice for experience 141
136. Since its elements would be immovably fixed in a series 142
137. Two positions have a relation independent of other positions, 143
138. Since positions are wholly defined by mutually independent relations 143
139. Hence projective Geometry is wholly à priori, 146
140. Though metrical Geometry contains an empirical element 146
Section B. the axioms of metrical geometry.
141. Metrical Geometry is distinct from projective, but has the same fundamental postulate 147
142. It introduces the new idea of motion, and has three à priori axioms 148
I. The Axiom of Free Mobility.
143. Measurement requires a criterion of spatial equality 149
144. Which is given by superposition, and involves the axiom of Free Mobility 150
145. The denial of this axiom involves an action of empty space on things 151
146. There is a mathematically possible alternative to the axiom, 152
147. Which, however, is logically and philosophically untenable 153
148. Though Free Mobility is à priori, actual measurement is empirical 154
[xiv] 149. Some objections remain to be answered, concerning— 154
150. (1) The comparison of volumes and of Kant's symmetrical objects 154
151. (2) The measurement of time, where congruence is impossible 156
152. (3) The immediate perception of spatial magnitude; and 157
153. (4) The Geometry of non-congruent surfaces 158
154. Free Mobility includes Helmholtz's Monodromy 159
155. Free Mobility involves the relativity of space 159
156. From which, reciprocally, it can be deduced 160
157. Our axiom is therefore à priori in a double sense 160
II. The Axiom of Dimensions.
158. Space must have a finite integral number of dimensions 161
159. But the restriction to three is empirical 162
160. The general axiom follows from the relativity of position 162
161. The limitation to three dimensions, unlike most empirical knowledge, is accurate and certain 163
III. The Axiom of Distance.
162. The axiom of distance corresponds, here, to that of the straight line in projective Geometry 164
163. The possibility of spatial measurement involves a magnitude uniquely determined by two points, 164
164. Since two points must have some relation, and the passivity of space proves this to be independent of external reference 165
165. There can be only one such relation 166
166. This must be measured by a curve joining the two points, 166
167. And the curve must be uniquely determined by the two points 167
168. Spherical Geometry contains an exception to this axiom, 168
169. Which, however, is not quite equivalent to Euclid's 168
170. The exception is due to the fact that two points, in spherical space, may have an external relation unaltered by motion, 169
171. Which, however, being a relation of linear magnitude, presupposes the possibility of linear magnitude 170
172. A relation between two points must be a line joining them 170
173. Conversely, the existence of a unique line between two points can be deduced from the nature of a form of externality, 171
174. And necessarily leads to distance, when quantity is applied to it 172
[xv] 175. Hence the axiom of distance, also, is à priori in a double sense 172
176. No metrical coordinate system can be set up without the straight line 174
177. No axioms besides the above three are necessary to metrical Geometry 175
178. But these three are necessary to the direct measurement of any continuum 176
179. Two philosophical questions remain for a final chapter 177
 
CHAPTER IV.
PHILOSOPHICAL CONSEQUENCES.
180. What is the relation to experience of a form of externality in general? 178
181. This form is the class-conception, containing every possible intuition of externality; and some such intuition is necessary to experience 178
182. What relation does this view bear to Kant's? 179
183. It is less psychological, since it does not discuss whether space is given in sensation, 180
184. And maintains that not only space, but any form of externality which renders experience possible, must be given in sense-perception 181
185. Externality should mean, not externality to the Self, but the mutual externality of presented things 181
186. Would this be unknowable without a given form of externality? 182
187. Bradley has proved that space and time preclude the existence of mere particulars, 182
188. And that knowledge requires the This to be neither simple nor self-subsistent 183
189. To prove that experience requires a form of externality, I assume that all knowledge requires the recognition of identity in difference 184
190. Such recognition involves time 184
191. And some other form giving simultaneous diversity 185
192. The above argument has not deduced sense-perception from the categories, but has shown the former, unless it contains a certain element, to be unintelligible to the latter 186
193. How to account for the realization of this element, is a question for metaphysics 187
[xvi] 194. What are we to do with the contradictions in space? 188
195. Three contradictions will be discussed in what follows 188
196. (1) The antinomy of the Point proves the relativity of space, 189
197. And shows that Geometry must have some reference to matter, 190
198. By which means it is made to refer to spatial order, not to empty space 191
199. The causal properties of matter are irrelevant to Geometry, which must regard it as composed of unextended atoms, by which points are replaced 191
200. (2) The circle in defining straight lines and planes is overcome by the same reference to matter 192
201. (3) The antinomy that space is relational and yet more than relational, 193
202. Seems to depend on the confusion of empty space with spatial order 193
203. Kant regarded empty space as the subject-matter of Geometry, 194
204. But the arguments of the Aesthetic are inconclusive on this point, 195
205. And are upset by the mathematical antinomies, which prove that spatial order should be the subject-matter of Geometry 196
206. The apparent thinghood of space is a psychological illusion, due to the fact that spatial relations are immediately given 196
207. The apparent divisibility of spatial relations is either an illusion, arising out of empty space, or the expression of the possibility of quantitatively different spatial relations 197
208. Externality is not a relation, but an aspect of relations. Spatial order, owing to its reference to matter, is a real relation 198
209. Conclusion 199






WHY MEN FIGHT

A METHOD OF ABOLISHING THE INTERNATIONAL DUEL

By Bertrand Russell

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
I The Principle of Growth 3
II The State 42
III War as an Institution 79
IV Property 117
V Education 153
VI Marriage and the Population Question 182
VII Religion and the Churches 215
VIII What We Can Do 245









End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Index of the Project Gutenberg Works
of Bertrand Russell, by Bertrand Russell

*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INDEX OF THE PG WORKS OF RUSSELL ***

***** This file should be named 59391-h.htm or 59391-h.zip *****
This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
        http://www.gutenberg.org/5/9/3/9/59391/

Produced by David Widger

Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive
specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this
eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook
for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports,
performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given
away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks
not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the
trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works

1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the
person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph
1.E.8.

1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the
Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual
works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting
free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm
works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily
comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when
you share it without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no
representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
country outside the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear
prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work
on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the
phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed,
performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

  This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
  most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
  restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
  under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
  eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
  United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you
  are located before using this ebook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is
derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project
Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm
trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works
posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg-tm License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format
other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official
version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain
Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
provided that

* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
  the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
  you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
  to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has
  agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
  within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
  legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
  payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
  Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
  Literary Archive Foundation."

* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
  you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
  does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
  License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
  copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
  all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm
  works.

* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
  any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
  electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
  receipt of the work.

* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
  distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than
are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The
Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm
trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm

Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
www.gutenberg.org Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.

The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the
mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its
volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous
locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt
Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to
date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and
official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

For additional contact information:

    Dr. Gregory B. Newby
    Chief Executive and Director
    gbnewby@pglaf.org

Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular
state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate

Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works.

Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org

This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.